From 581fe68972aceb973037b53fa8350c6304a118fd Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Claude Date: Sat, 31 Oct 2026 09:12:12 +0000 Subject: [PATCH] Grammar, vocabulary and reference cards for Greek, Hebrew, Georgian, Armenian and Thai Each language gets languages//grammar.js (six lessons, thirty drills) and reference.json (ten or eleven cards); Hebrew, Georgian, Armenian and Thai also get vocab.js (ten decks, about 140 words). Greek's deck stays in vocabulary-learner/decks/ until W11.5 moves it. Each meta.json lists its files under data, and registry.js and reference.js are regenerated. Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 5.5 Claude-Session: https://claude.ai/code/session_01UG2SqmCvqZVUfEYh2gZXcE --- languages/armenian/grammar.js | 198 ++ languages/armenian/meta.json | 3 +- languages/armenian/reference.json | 136 + languages/armenian/vocab.js | 208 ++ languages/georgian/grammar.js | 197 ++ languages/georgian/meta.json | 3 +- languages/georgian/reference.json | 516 +++ languages/georgian/vocab.js | 211 ++ languages/greek/grammar.js | 200 ++ languages/greek/meta.json | 3 +- languages/greek/reference.json | 154 + languages/hebrew/grammar.js | 197 ++ languages/hebrew/meta.json | 3 +- languages/hebrew/reference.json | 123 + languages/hebrew/vocab.js | 212 ++ languages/reference.js | 5287 +++++++++++++++++++++-------- languages/registry.js | 34 +- languages/thai/grammar.js | 198 ++ languages/thai/meta.json | 3 +- languages/thai/reference.json | 141 + languages/thai/vocab.js | 205 ++ 21 files changed, 6835 insertions(+), 1397 deletions(-) create mode 100644 languages/armenian/grammar.js create mode 100644 languages/armenian/reference.json create mode 100644 languages/armenian/vocab.js create mode 100644 languages/georgian/grammar.js create mode 100644 languages/georgian/reference.json create mode 100644 languages/georgian/vocab.js create mode 100644 languages/greek/grammar.js create mode 100644 languages/greek/reference.json create mode 100644 languages/hebrew/grammar.js create mode 100644 languages/hebrew/reference.json create mode 100644 languages/hebrew/vocab.js create mode 100644 languages/thai/grammar.js create mode 100644 languages/thai/reference.json create mode 100644 languages/thai/vocab.js diff --git a/languages/armenian/grammar.js b/languages/armenian/grammar.js new file mode 100644 index 00000000..f4b66ae7 --- /dev/null +++ b/languages/armenian/grammar.js @@ -0,0 +1,198 @@ +// Eastern Armenian first grammar for the Grammar Learner. Written for this project. +// Examples are [Armenian, romanization, English]; {braces} mark the point of the lesson. +// Drills are { q, en, options, answer, why }; ＿ is the blank. +window.GRAMMAR = window.GRAMMAR || {}; +window.GRAMMAR.armenian = { + title: "Armenian first grammar", + intro: "Eastern Armenian, the standard language of Armenia, has no grammatical gender. “The” is an ending on the noun, most verbs are built from a participle plus a small helper verb, and endings on nouns do the work of English prepositions. These lessons cover “to be”, the article, plurals, the present tense, saying no and asking, and in, from and “my”. Armenian ends a sentence with ։ and marks a question with ՞ over the stressed vowel. In the romanization ë is the short “uh” sound and k' is a breathy k.", + lessons: [ + { + id: "em", + title: "եմ, ես, է — “to be”", + particle: "եմ", + summary: "The helper verb “to be”, which goes after the word it describes.", + sections: [ + { + p: "եմ I am, ես you are, է he/she/it is. It follows the word it describes. The pronouns are ես (I), դու (you), նա (he, she). Note that ես is both “I” and “you are”.", + examples: [ + ["Ես ուսանող {եմ}։", "Yes usanogh em.", "I am a student."], + ["Որտե՞ղ {ես}։", "Vortegh es?", "Where are you?"], + ["Նա բժիշկ {է}։", "Na bzhishk e.", "He / she is a doctor."], + ], + }, + { + h: "The plural", + p: "ենք we are, եք you are (several, or polite), են they are. The pronouns are մենք, դուք and նրանք.", + examples: [ + ["Մենք ընկերներ {ենք}։", "Menk' ënkerner enk'.", "We are friends."], + ["Դուք որտեղի՞ց {եք}։", "Duk' vorteghits ek'?", "Where are you from? (polite)"], + ["Նրանք տանը {են}։", "Nrank' tanë en.", "They are at home."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "Ես հայ ＿։", en: "I am Armenian.", options: ["եմ", "ես", "է", "ենք"], answer: "եմ", why: "“I am” is եմ." }, + { q: "Արամը ուսուցիչ ＿։", en: "Aram is a teacher.", options: ["է", "եմ", "եք", "են"], answer: "է", why: "He or she: է." }, + { q: "Դու լա՞վ ＿։", en: "Are you well?", options: ["ես", "եմ", "է", "եք"], answer: "ես", why: "“You are” (one friend) is ես." }, + { q: "Մենք Երևանում ＿։", en: "We are in Yerevan.", options: ["ենք", "են", "եմ", "եք"], answer: "ենք", why: "“We are” is ենք." }, + { q: "Նրանք եղբայրներ ＿։", en: "They are brothers.", options: ["են", "է", "ենք", "ես"], answer: "են", why: "“They are” is են." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "article", + title: "“The” is an ending: -ը and -ն", + particle: "-ը -ն", + summary: "Add -ը after a consonant and -ն after a vowel; “a” is մի before the noun.", + sections: [ + { + p: "Armenian puts “the” on the end of the noun: -ը after a consonant, -ն after a vowel. There is no gender, so this is the only choice.", + examples: [ + ["գիրք → գիրք{ը}", "girk' → girk'ë", "a book → the book"], + ["տուն → տուն{ը}", "tun → tunë", "a house → the house"], + ["կատու → կատու{ն}", "katu → katun", "a cat → the cat"], + ], + }, + { + h: "“A”, and “this”", + p: "մի before a noun means “a, one”. այս means “this” and այն “that”; սա is “this one”. Proper names take the article too when they are the subject: Աննան, Արամը.", + examples: [ + ["{մի} բաժակ ջուր", "mi bazhak jur", "a glass of water"], + ["{Սա} իմ տունն է։", "Sa im tunn e.", "This is my house."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "սեղան → ＿", en: "table → the table", options: ["սեղանը", "սեղանն", "սեղանի", "մի սեղան"], answer: "սեղանը", why: "It ends in a consonant, so add -ը." }, + { q: "երեխա → ＿", en: "child → the child", options: ["երեխան", "երեխաը", "երեխայի", "մի երեխա"], answer: "երեխան", why: "It ends in a vowel, so add -ն." }, + { q: "＿ խնձոր", en: "an apple", options: ["մի", "այս", "-ը", "սա"], answer: "մի", why: "մի before the noun means “a, one”." }, + { q: "What does «սուրճը» mean?", en: "սուրճ = coffee", options: ["the coffee", "a coffee", "coffees", "this coffee"], answer: "the coffee", why: "The -ը ending is “the”." }, + { q: "＿ քաղաքը գեղեցիկ է։", en: "This city is beautiful.", options: ["Այս", "Մի", "Սա", "Նա"], answer: "Այս", why: "այս = this, before a noun." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "plural", + title: "Plurals: -եր and -ներ", + particle: "-եր -ներ", + summary: "One-syllable words add -եր; longer words add -ներ.", + sections: [ + { + p: "A one-syllable noun adds -եր; a noun of two or more syllables adds -ներ. A few common words are irregular: մարդ (person) → մարդիկ.", + examples: [ + ["դաս → դաս{եր}", "das → daser", "lesson → lessons"], + ["ծառ → ծառ{եր}", "tsar → tsarer", "tree → trees"], + ["քաղաք → քաղաք{ներ}", "k'aghak' → k'aghak'ner", "city → cities"], + ["երեխա → երեխա{ներ}", "yerekha → yerekhaner", "child → children"], + ], + }, + { + h: "Numbers take the singular", + p: "After a number the noun usually stays singular: երկու գիրք “two books”, երեք օր “three days”.", + examples: [ + ["{երկու} բաժակ սուրճ", "yerku bazhak surch", "two cups of coffee"], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "քար → ＿", en: "stone → stones", options: ["քարեր", "քարներ", "քարիկ", "քարը"], answer: "քարեր", why: "One syllable: add -եր." }, + { q: "աթոռ → ＿", en: "chair → chairs", options: ["աթոռներ", "աթոռեր", "աթոռիկ", "աթոռը"], answer: "աթոռներ", why: "Two syllables (a-tor): add -ներ." }, + { q: "սեղան → ＿", en: "table → tables", options: ["սեղաններ", "սեղաներ", "սեղանը", "սեղանիկ"], answer: "սեղաններ", why: "Two syllables: սեղան + ներ." }, + { q: "մարդ → ＿", en: "person → people", options: ["մարդիկ", "մարդեր", "մարդներ", "մարդը"], answer: "մարդիկ", why: "One of the few irregular plurals." }, + { q: "երեք ＿", en: "three days (օր)", options: ["օր", "օրեր", "օրը", "օրներ"], answer: "օր", why: "After a number the noun stays singular." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "present", + title: "The present tense: -ում եմ", + particle: "-ում", + summary: "Change -ել or -ալ to -ում and add the “to be” helper for the person.", + sections: [ + { + p: "Take the infinitive, change -ել or -ալ to -ում, and add եմ, ես, է… for the person: գրել (to write) → գրում եմ I write, գրում ես you write, գրում է he writes. The same form means “I write” and “I am writing”.", + examples: [ + ["Ես ապրում {եմ} Երևանում։", "Yes aprum em Yerevanum.", "I live in Yerevan."], + ["Նա գիրք է կարդ{ում}։", "Na girk' e kardum.", "She is reading a book."], + ["Մենք հայերեն ենք սովոր{ում}։", "Menk' hayeren enk' sovorum.", "We are learning Armenian."], + ], + }, + { + h: "The helper moves", + p: "The helper often jumps in front of the participle, right after the word you are stressing: Ես սուրճ եմ խմում “I drink coffee”. In a question ՞ sits on the participle's stressed vowel.", + examples: [ + ["Դու անգլերեն խոսու՞մ ես։", "Du angleren khosum es?", "Do you speak English?"], + ["Ես սուրճ {եմ} խմում։", "Yes surch em khmum.", "I drink coffee."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "Ես նամակ ＿ գրում։", en: "I am writing a letter.", options: ["եմ", "ես", "է", "են"], answer: "եմ", why: "“I” takes the helper եմ." }, + { q: "Խոսել → Նա հայերեն ＿ է։", en: "He speaks Armenian.", options: ["խոսում", "խոսել", "խոսեմ", "խոսը"], answer: "խոսում", why: "-ել becomes -ում." }, + { q: "Կարդալ → Ես ＿ եմ։", en: "I am reading.", options: ["կարդում", "կարդալում", "կարդաում", "կարդալ"], answer: "կարդում", why: "-ալ also becomes -ում: կարդում." }, + { q: "Նրանք Մոսկվայում ապրում ＿։", en: "They live in Moscow.", options: ["են", "է", "ենք", "եք"], answer: "են", why: "They: են." }, + { q: "Դուք ի՞նչ եք ＿։", en: "What are you doing? (անել, to do)", options: ["անում", "անել", "անեմ", "անը"], answer: "անում", why: "անել → անում." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "negative", + title: "Saying no, and asking", + particle: "չ-", + summary: "Put չ- on the helper and move it before the verb; question words carry ՞.", + sections: [ + { + p: "To say “not”, add չ- to the helper and put it in front: չեմ, չես, չի (not չէ), չենք, չեք, չեն. Ես չեմ հասկանում, “I don't understand”. The words for yes and no are այո and ոչ.", + examples: [ + ["Ես {չեմ} հասկանում։", "Yes chem haskanum.", "I don't understand."], + ["Նա այստեղ {չի}։", "Na aystegh chi.", "He isn't here."], + ["{Չգիտեմ}։", "Chgitem.", "I don't know."], + ], + }, + { + h: "Question words", + p: "ի՞նչ what, ո՞վ who, որտե՞ղ where, ե՞րբ when, ինչո՞ւ why, ինչպե՞ս how, ինչքա՞ն how much. The ՞ mark sits on the stressed vowel of the word being asked about.", + examples: [ + ["{Ինչպե՞ս} ես։", "Inchpes es?", "How are you?"], + ["{Ինչքա՞ն} արժե։", "Inchk'an arzhe?", "How much does it cost?"], + ["Սա {ի՞նչ} է։", "Sa inch e?", "What is this?"], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "Ես ռուսերեն ＿ խոսում։", en: "I don't speak Russian.", options: ["չեմ", "եմ", "չի", "ոչ"], answer: "չեմ", why: "Not + I: չեմ, before the verb." }, + { q: "Նա տանը ＿։", en: "She isn't at home.", options: ["չի", "չէ", "է", "չեմ"], answer: "չի", why: "The negative of է is չի." }, + { q: "＿ է նա։", en: "Who is he?", options: ["Ո՞վ", "Ի՞նչ", "Ե՞րբ", "Որտե՞ղ"], answer: "Ո՞վ", why: "ո՞վ = who." }, + { q: "Զուգարանը ＿ է։", en: "Where is the toilet?", options: ["որտե՞ղ", "ե՞րբ", "ինչո՞ւ", "ինչքա՞ն"], answer: "որտե՞ղ", why: "որտե՞ղ = where." }, + { q: "The Armenian for “no” is…", en: "", options: ["ոչ", "այո", "չ-", "չի"], answer: "ոչ", why: "այո is yes, ոչ is no; չ- is the prefix for “not”." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "cases", + title: "In, from, and “my”", + particle: "-ում -ից", + summary: "-ում means “in”, -ից means “from”; իմ, քո, նրա come before the noun.", + sections: [ + { + p: "Endings do the work of prepositions. -ում means “in, at”: Երևան → Երևանում. -ից means “from”: Երևանից. “At home” is irregular: տանը.", + examples: [ + ["Ես ապրում եմ Գյումրի{ում}։", "Yes aprum em Gyumrium.", "I live in Gyumri."], + ["Նա Ամերիկայ{ից} է։", "Na Amerikayits e.", "She is from America."], + ["Գիրքը պայուսակ{ում} է։", "Girk'ë payusakum e.", "The book is in the bag."], + ], + }, + { + h: "My, your, his", + p: "իմ my, քո your, նրա his / her, մեր our, ձեր your (plural, polite), նրանց their. The noun then usually takes “the”: իմ տունը, my house.", + examples: [ + ["{Իմ} անունը Անի է։", "Im anunë Ani e.", "My name is Ani."], + ["{Ձեր} անունն ի՞նչ է։", "Dzer anunn inch e?", "What is your name? (polite)"], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "Մենք Փարիզ＿ ենք։", en: "We are in Paris.", options: ["ում", "ից", "ը", "ներ"], answer: "ում", why: "-ում = in." }, + { q: "Ես Ֆրանսիայ＿ եմ։", en: "I am from France.", options: ["ից", "ում", "ն", "եր"], answer: "ից", why: "-ից = from." }, + { q: "＿ եղբայրը բժիշկ է։", en: "My brother is a doctor.", options: ["Իմ", "Քո", "Նրա", "Ձեր"], answer: "Իմ", why: "իմ = my." }, + { q: "＿ մայրը որտե՞ղ է։", en: "Where is your mother? (to a friend)", options: ["Քո", "Իմ", "Մեր", "Նրանց"], answer: "Քո", why: "քո = your, to one friend." }, + { q: "How do you say “at home”?", en: "", options: ["տանը", "տունում", "տունից", "տներ"], answer: "տանը", why: "“At home” is the irregular տանը." }, + ], + }, + ], +}; diff --git a/languages/armenian/meta.json b/languages/armenian/meta.json index c4a9095e..cef430b7 100644 --- a/languages/armenian/meta.json +++ b/languages/armenian/meta.json @@ -5,5 +5,6 @@ "writingSystems": ["armenian"], "characterKeys": ["armenian"], "notes": "Eastern Armenian in the Armenian alphabet.", - "speech": "hy-AM" + "speech": "hy-AM", + "data": { "grammar": "grammar.js", "vocab": "vocab.js", "reference": "reference.json" } } diff --git a/languages/armenian/reference.json b/languages/armenian/reference.json new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e78ac508 --- /dev/null +++ b/languages/armenian/reference.json @@ -0,0 +1,136 @@ +{ + "id": "armenian", + "entries": [ + { + "id": "at-a-glance", "topic": "overview", "title": "Armenian at a glance", + "body": [ + "Armenian forms its own branch of the Indo-European family. It has two standard forms: Eastern Armenian, spoken in Armenia and Iran, which these cards follow, and Western Armenian, spoken mostly in the diaspora.", + "There is no grammatical gender. “The” is an ending (-ը or -ն), nouns take case endings instead of prepositions, and most verb tenses are a participle plus a helper verb: գրում եմ, “I write”." + ], + "examples": [ + { "t": "Ես հայերեն եմ {սովորում}։", "r": "Yes hayeren em sovorum.", "e": "I am learning Armenian." } + ], + "tags": ["Indo-European", "Eastern Armenian", "no gender"] + }, + { + "id": "alphabet", "topic": "script", "title": "The alphabet", + "body": [ + "The Armenian alphabet was created by Mesrop Mashtots around 405 AD with 36 letters; two more, Օ and Ֆ, were added later. Each letter has a capital and a small form.", + "The sound ու (u) is written with two letters, and և (yev, “and”) is a ligature of ե and ւ." + ], + "table": { + "head": ["Letter", "Sound", "Letter", "Sound"], + "rows": [ + ["Ա ա", "a", "Բ բ", "b"], ["Գ գ", "g", "Դ դ", "d"], ["Ե ե", "ye / e", "Զ զ", "z"], + ["Է է", "e", "Ը ը", "ë (uh)"], ["Թ թ", "t'", "Ժ ժ", "zh"], ["Ի ի", "i", "Լ լ", "l"], + ["Խ խ", "kh", "Ծ ծ", "ts"], ["Կ կ", "k", "Հ հ", "h"], ["Ձ ձ", "dz", "Ղ ղ", "gh"], + ["Ճ ճ", "ch", "Մ մ", "m"], ["Յ յ", "y", "Ն ն", "n"], ["Շ շ", "sh", "Ո ո", "vo / o"], + ["Չ չ", "ch'", "Պ պ", "p"], ["Ջ ջ", "j", "Ռ ռ", "r (rolled)"], ["Ս ս", "s", "Վ վ", "v"], + ["Տ տ", "t", "Ր ր", "r"], ["Ց ց", "ts'", "Ւ ւ", "v (in ու)"], ["Փ փ", "p'", "Ք ք", "k'"], + ["Օ օ", "o", "Ֆ ֆ", "f"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["script", "letters", "Mashtots"] + }, + { + "id": "consonants", "topic": "sounds", "title": "Three kinds of consonant", + "body": "Like Georgian, Armenian has three versions of many stops. Plain ones (կ, պ, տ) have no puff of air and can sound almost like g, b, d to English ears. Aspirated ones (ք, փ, թ, marked with an apostrophe here) have a strong puff. Voiced ones are like English b, d, g.", + "table": { + "head": ["Voiced", "Plain", "Aspirated"], + "rows": [ + ["բ b", "պ p", "փ p'"], + ["դ d", "տ t", "թ t'"], + ["գ g", "կ k", "ք k'"], + ["ձ dz", "ծ ts", "ց ts'"], + ["ջ j", "ճ ch", "չ ch'"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["pronunciation", "consonants"] + }, + { + "id": "punctuation", "topic": "script", "title": "Punctuation", + "body": "Armenian marks are placed inside the word. The question mark ՞ and the exclamation mark ՜ sit over the stressed vowel of the word being asked or exclaimed. The full stop is ։ (verjaket), the comma is the same as in English, and ՝ (called but) marks a short pause.", + "examples": [ + { "t": "Որտե՞ղ ես։", "r": "Vortegh es?", "e": "Where are you?" }, + { "t": "Ի՜նչ գեղեցիկ է։", "r": "Inch geghets'ik e!", "e": "How beautiful it is!" } + ], + "tags": ["punctuation"] + }, + { + "id": "to-be", "topic": "verbs", "title": "The helper verb “to be”", + "body": "These forms mean “am, is, are” on their own, and they also build the present and other tenses. The negative adds չ-; for “is not” the form is չի.", + "table": { + "head": ["", "Positive", "Negative"], + "rows": [ + ["I", "եմ em", "չեմ chem"], + ["you", "ես es", "չես ches"], + ["he, she", "է e", "չի chi"], + ["we", "ենք enk'", "չենք chenk'"], + ["you (pl.)", "եք ek'", "չեք chek'"], + ["they", "են en", "չեն chen"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["verbs", "to be", "negation"] + }, + { + "id": "present", "topic": "verbs", "title": "The present tense", + "body": "Replace the infinitive's -ել or -ալ with -ում and add the helper. In a negative sentence the negative helper comes first: չեմ գրում, “I don't write”.", + "table": { + "head": ["Infinitive", "Present (I)", "Meaning"], + "rows": [ + ["գրել", "գրում եմ", "I write"], + ["խոսել", "խոսում եմ", "I speak"], + ["կարդալ", "կարդում եմ", "I read"], + ["ապրել", "ապրում եմ", "I live"], + ["գալ", "գալիս եմ", "I come (irregular)"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["verbs", "present"] + }, + { + "id": "cases", "topic": "grammar", "title": "Main cases", + "body": "Nouns take endings for their role. These are the forms of քաղաք (city).", + "table": { + "head": ["Case", "Ending", "Example", "Meaning"], + "rows": [ + ["Nominative", "–", "քաղաք", "a city"], + ["Genitive / dative", "-ի", "քաղաքի", "of / to a city"], + ["Ablative", "-ից", "քաղաքից", "from a city"], + ["Instrumental", "-ով", "քաղաքով", "by, through a city"], + ["Locative", "-ում", "քաղաքում", "in a city"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["cases"] + }, + { + "id": "numbers", "topic": "numbers", "title": "Numbers", + "table": { + "head": ["", "Armenian", "Romanization"], + "rows": [ + ["1", "մեկ", "mek"], ["2", "երկու", "yerku"], ["3", "երեք", "yerek'"], ["4", "չորս", "ch'ors"], + ["5", "հինգ", "hing"], ["6", "վեց", "vets'"], ["7", "յոթ", "yot'"], ["8", "ութ", "ut'"], + ["9", "ինը", "inë"], ["10", "տասը", "tasë"], ["20", "քսան", "k'san"], ["100", "հարյուր", "haryur"], ["1000", "հազար", "hazar"] + ] + }, + "body": "Eleven to nineteen are ten plus the unit: տասնմեկ (11), տասներկու (12). A noun after a number usually stays singular.", + "tags": ["numbers"] + }, + { + "id": "phrases", "topic": "phrases", "title": "Everyday phrases", + "examples": [ + { "t": "Բարև Ձեզ։", "r": "Barev dzez.", "e": "Hello. (polite)" }, + { "t": "Շնորհակալություն։", "r": "Shnorhakalut'yun.", "e": "Thank you." }, + { "t": "Ներեցեք, չեմ հասկանում։", "r": "Neretsek', chem haskanum.", "e": "Excuse me, I don't understand." }, + { "t": "Անգլերեն խոսու՞մ եք։", "r": "Angleren khosum ek'?", "e": "Do you speak English?" }, + { "t": "Ինչքա՞ն արժե։", "r": "Inchk'an arzhe?", "e": "How much does it cost?" }, + { "t": "Կենացդ։", "r": "Kenats'd!", "e": "Cheers! (to your life)" } + ], + "tags": ["phrases", "travel"] + }, + { + "id": "ararat", "topic": "culture", "title": "Ararat and the apricot", + "body": "Mount Ararat, visible from Yerevan across the Turkish border, is the national symbol of Armenia and appears on its coat of arms. The apricot (ծիրան) is thought of as the national fruit, and its colour is in the flag: red, blue and apricot-orange.", + "tags": ["culture", "symbols"] + } + ] +} diff --git a/languages/armenian/vocab.js b/languages/armenian/vocab.js new file mode 100644 index 00000000..70d9dc7d --- /dev/null +++ b/languages/armenian/vocab.js @@ -0,0 +1,208 @@ +// Eastern Armenian starter words for the Vocabulary Learner. +// Each word is [Armenian, romanization, English, note]. Written for this project. +// In the romanization ë is the short “uh” sound and an apostrophe marks a breathy consonant. +window.LSD_DECKS = window.LSD_DECKS || {}; +window.LSD_DECKS.armenian = [ + { + id: "greetings", + title: "Greetings", + words: [ + ["բարև", "barev", "hello", "Polite: բարև Ձեզ, barev dzez."], + ["բարի լույս", "bari luys", "good morning", "Literally “good light”."], + ["բարի երեկո", "bari yereko", "good evening", ""], + ["բարի գիշեր", "bari gisher", "good night", ""], + ["շնորհակալություն", "shnorhakalut'yun", "thank you", "In speech also մերսի, mersi."], + ["խնդրեմ", "khndrem", "please; you're welcome", ""], + ["ներեցեք", "neretsek'", "sorry; excuse me", "To a friend: ներիր, nerir."], + ["այո", "ayo", "yes", "In speech also հա, ha."], + ["ոչ", "voch'", "no", "In speech also չէ, che."], + ["ինչպե՞ս ես", "inchpes es?", "how are you?", "Polite: ինչպե՞ս եք, inchpes ek'?"], + ["լավ եմ", "lav em", "I'm fine", ""], + ["շատ ուրախ եմ", "shat urakh em", "pleased to meet you", "Literally “I am very glad”."], + ["իմ անունը … է", "im anunë … e", "my name is …", ""], + ["ցտեսություն", "ts'tesut'yun", "goodbye", ""], + ["բարի գալուստ", "bari galust", "welcome", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "people", + title: "People", + words: [ + ["ես", "yes", "I", ""], + ["դու", "du", "you (one)", ""], + ["նա", "na", "he; she", "No gender difference."], + ["մենք", "menk'", "we", ""], + ["դուք", "duk'", "you (plural, polite)", ""], + ["նրանք", "nrank'", "they", ""], + ["տղամարդ", "tghamard", "man", ""], + ["կին", "kin", "woman; wife", ""], + ["երեխա", "yerekha", "child", ""], + ["ընկեր", "ënker", "friend", ""], + ["մայր", "mayr", "mother", "In speech also մամա."], + ["հայր", "hayr", "father", "In speech also պապա."], + ["եղբայր", "yeghbayr", "brother", ""], + ["քույր", "k'uyr", "sister", ""], + ["ընտանիք", "ëntanik'", "family", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "numbers", + title: "Numbers", + words: [ + ["զրո", "zro", "zero", ""], + ["մեկ", "mek", "one", ""], + ["երկու", "yerku", "two", ""], + ["երեք", "yerek'", "three", ""], + ["չորս", "ch'ors", "four", ""], + ["հինգ", "hing", "five", ""], + ["վեց", "vets'", "six", ""], + ["յոթ", "yot'", "seven", ""], + ["ութ", "ut'", "eight", ""], + ["ինը", "inë", "nine", ""], + ["տասը", "tasë", "ten", ""], + ["քսան", "k'san", "twenty", ""], + ["հարյուր", "haryur", "a hundred", ""], + ["հազար", "hazar", "a thousand", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "food", + title: "Food and drink", + words: [ + ["ջուր", "jur", "water", ""], + ["սուրճ", "surch", "coffee", "Armenian coffee is boiled in a սրճեփ (jazve)."], + ["թեյ", "t'ey", "tea", ""], + ["գինի", "gini", "wine", ""], + ["հաց", "hats'", "bread; a meal", "Լավաշ (lavash) is the thin flatbread."], + ["պանիր", "panir", "cheese", ""], + ["միս", "mis", "meat", ""], + ["խորոված", "khorovats", "barbecue", ""], + ["ձուկ", "dzuk", "fish", ""], + ["ձու", "dzu", "egg", ""], + ["միրգ", "mirg", "fruit", ""], + ["ծիրան", "tsiran", "apricot", "A national symbol."], + ["բանջարեղեն", "banjareghen", "vegetables", ""], + ["համեղ է", "hamegh e", "it's tasty", ""], + ["հաշիվը, խնդրեմ", "hashivë, khndrem", "the bill, please", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "verbs", + title: "Everyday verbs", + words: [ + ["ուտել", "utel", "to eat", "Present: ուտում եմ."], + ["խմել", "khmel", "to drink", "Present: խմում եմ."], + ["գնալ", "gnal", "to go", "Present: գնում եմ."], + ["գալ", "gal", "to come", "Present: գալիս եմ (irregular)."], + ["ապրել", "aprel", "to live", ""], + ["խոսել", "khosel", "to speak", ""], + ["ուզել", "uzel", "to want", ""], + ["սիրել", "sirel", "to love; to like", ""], + ["աշխատել", "ashkhatel", "to work", ""], + ["սովորել", "sovorel", "to learn; to study", ""], + ["կարդալ", "kardal", "to read", ""], + ["գրել", "grel", "to write", ""], + ["տեսնել", "tesnel", "to see", ""], + ["գիտեմ", "gitem", "I know", "Չգիտեմ: I don't know."], + ["հասկանալ", "haskanal", "to understand", "Չեմ հասկանում: I don't understand."], + ["անել", "anel", "to do; to make", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "describing", + title: "Describing words", + words: [ + ["մեծ", "mets", "big", ""], + ["փոքր", "p'ok'r", "small", ""], + ["լավ", "lav", "good", ""], + ["վատ", "vat", "bad", ""], + ["գեղեցիկ", "geghets'ik", "beautiful", ""], + ["նոր", "nor", "new", ""], + ["հին", "hin", "old", ""], + ["տաք", "tak'", "hot; warm", ""], + ["սառը", "sarë", "cold", ""], + ["էժան", "ezhan", "cheap", ""], + ["թանկ", "t'ank", "expensive", ""], + ["հեշտ", "hesht", "easy", ""], + ["դժվար", "dzhvar", "difficult", ""], + ["ուրախ", "urakh", "happy", ""], + ["հոգնած", "hognats", "tired", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "places", + title: "Places", + words: [ + ["տուն", "tun", "house; home", "տանը: at home."], + ["քաղաք", "k'aghak'", "city", ""], + ["փողոց", "p'oghots'", "street", ""], + ["խանութ", "khanut'", "shop", ""], + ["շուկա", "shuka", "market", ""], + ["ռեստորան", "restoran", "restaurant", ""], + ["դպրոց", "dprots'", "school", ""], + ["հիվանդանոց", "hivandanots'", "hospital", ""], + ["դեղատուն", "deghatun", "pharmacy", ""], + ["կայարան", "kayaran", "station", ""], + ["լիճ", "lich", "lake", "Lake Sevan is Սևանա լիճ."], + ["լեռ", "ler", "mountain", ""], + ["եկեղեցի", "yekeghets'i", "church", ""], + ["զուգարան", "zugaran", "toilet", ""], + ["հյուրանոց", "hyuranots'", "hotel", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "questions", + title: "Questions", + words: [ + ["ի՞նչ", "inch?", "what?", ""], + ["ո՞վ", "vov?", "who?", ""], + ["որտե՞ղ", "vortegh?", "where?", ""], + ["որտեղի՞ց", "vorteghits'?", "where from?", ""], + ["ե՞րբ", "yerb?", "when?", ""], + ["ինչո՞ւ", "inch'u?", "why?", ""], + ["ինչպե՞ս", "inchpes?", "how?", ""], + ["քանի՞", "k'ani?", "how many?", ""], + ["ինչքա՞ն արժե", "inchk'an arzhe?", "how much does it cost?", ""], + ["ո՞ր", "vor?", "which?", ""], + ["ունե՞ք", "unek'?", "do you have?", ""], + ["կարելի՞ է", "kareli e?", "may I? is it allowed?", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "time", + title: "Time and days", + words: [ + ["այսօր", "aysor", "today", ""], + ["վաղը", "vaghë", "tomorrow", ""], + ["երեկ", "yerek", "yesterday", ""], + ["հիմա", "hima", "now", ""], + ["հետո", "heto", "later; after", ""], + ["ժամ", "zham", "hour; o'clock", "Ժամը քանի՞սն է: What time is it?"], + ["օր", "or", "day", ""], + ["շաբաթ", "shabat'", "week; Saturday", ""], + ["ամիս", "amis", "month", ""], + ["տարի", "tari", "year", ""], + ["երկուշաբթի", "yerkushabt'i", "Monday", ""], + ["կիրակի", "kiraki", "Sunday", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "travel", + title: "Getting around", + words: [ + ["ավտոբուս", "avtobus", "bus", ""], + ["գնացք", "gnats'k'", "train", ""], + ["տաքսի", "tak'si", "taxi", ""], + ["մեքենա", "mek'ena", "car", ""], + ["մետրո", "metro", "metro", ""], + ["տոմս", "toms", "ticket", ""], + ["անձնագիր", "andznagir", "passport", ""], + ["աջ", "aj", "right", ""], + ["ձախ", "dzakh", "left", ""], + ["ուղիղ", "ughigh", "straight on", ""], + ["մոտ", "mot", "near", ""], + ["հեռու", "heru", "far", ""], + ["օգնեցե՛ք", "ognets'ek'!", "help!", ""], + ], + }, +]; diff --git a/languages/georgian/grammar.js b/languages/georgian/grammar.js new file mode 100644 index 00000000..80d7d8e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/languages/georgian/grammar.js @@ -0,0 +1,197 @@ +// Georgian first grammar for the Grammar Learner. Written for this project. +// Examples are [Georgian, romanization, English]; {braces} mark the point of the lesson. +// Drills are { q, en, options, answer, why }; ＿ is the blank. +window.GRAMMAR = window.GRAMMAR || {}; +window.GRAMMAR.georgian = { + title: "Georgian first grammar", + intro: "Georgian has no articles and no grammatical gender: ის means he, she and it alike. Instead it packs a lot into the verb, which marks who does what with prefixes and endings, and it adds case endings and postpositions to nouns where English uses prepositions. These lessons cover “to be”, this and that, plurals, the present tense, places with -ში, -ზე and -დან, and saying no and asking questions. The romanization is the national system; an apostrophe marks an ejective consonant (k', p', t', ts', ch', q'), and kh, gh are throaty sounds.", + lessons: [ + { + id: "var", + title: "ვარ, ხარ, არის — “to be”", + particle: "ვარ", + summary: "“Am / are / is”, which usually goes at the end.", + sections: [ + { + p: "The verb “to be”: ვარ I am, ხარ you are, არის he/she/it is. It usually comes after the word it describes. Pronouns (მე I, შენ you, ის he/she) are often dropped.", + examples: [ + ["მე სტუდენტი {ვარ}.", "Me st'udent'i var.", "I am a student."], + ["სად {ხარ}?", "Sad khar?", "Where are you?"], + ["ის ექიმი {არის}.", "Is ekimi aris.", "He / she is a doctor."], + ], + }, + { + h: "Plural, and the short -ა", + p: "ვართ we are, ხართ you are (several, or polite), არიან they are. In speech არის is often shortened to -ა on the end of the word: ეს წიგნი არის → ეს წიგნია.", + examples: [ + ["ჩვენ მეგობრები {ვართ}.", "Chven megobrebi vart.", "We are friends."], + ["ეს ჩაი{ა}.", "Es chai-a.", "This is tea."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "მე ქართველი ＿.", en: "I am Georgian.", options: ["ვარ", "ხარ", "არის", "ვართ"], answer: "ვარ", why: "“I am” is ვარ." }, + { q: "შენ სად ＿?", en: "Where are you?", options: ["ხარ", "ვარ", "არის", "არიან"], answer: "ხარ", why: "“You are” (one person) is ხარ." }, + { q: "ნინო მასწავლებელი ＿.", en: "Nino is a teacher.", options: ["არის", "ვარ", "ხართ", "ვართ"], answer: "არის", why: "He or she: არის." }, + { q: "ისინი სახლში ＿.", en: "They are at home.", options: ["არიან", "არის", "ვართ", "ხარ"], answer: "არიან", why: "“They are” is არიან." }, + { q: "What does «ეს ყავაა» mean?", en: "ყავა = coffee", options: ["This is coffee.", "This coffee.", "Is this coffee?", "There is no coffee."], answer: "This is coffee.", why: "The final -ა is the short form of არის." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "es-is", + title: "ეს, ის and “my”", + particle: "ეს ის", + summary: "No articles, no gender: this, that, and the possessives.", + sections: [ + { + p: "Georgian has no word for “a” or “the”, and no he/she difference. ეს means “this”, and ის means “that” and also “he, she, it”.", + examples: [ + ["{ეს} რა არის?", "Es ra aris?", "What is this?"], + ["{ის} ჩემი ძმაა.", "Is chemi dzmaa.", "He is my brother."], + ["{ის} ჩემი დაა.", "Is chemi daa.", "She is my sister."], + ], + }, + { + h: "My, your, his", + p: "ჩემი my, შენი your, მისი his / her, ჩვენი our, თქვენი your (plural, polite), მათი their. They come before the noun.", + examples: [ + ["{ჩემი} სახელია ნინო.", "Chemi sakhelia Nino.", "My name is Nino."], + ["{თქვენი} სახლი ლამაზია.", "Tkveni sakhli lamazia.", "Your house is beautiful."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "＿ ჩემი წიგნია.", en: "This is my book.", options: ["ეს", "ის", "რა", "ვინ"], answer: "ეს", why: "ეს = this." }, + { q: "How do you say “he” in Georgian?", en: "", options: ["ის", "ეს", "მე", "შენ"], answer: "ის", why: "ის covers he, she, it and “that”." }, + { q: "＿ მეგობარი", en: "your friend (to one friend)", options: ["შენი", "ჩემი", "მისი", "მათი"], answer: "შენი", why: "შენი = your (one person)." }, + { q: "＿ სახელი რა არის?", en: "What is your name? (polite)", options: ["თქვენი", "შენი", "ჩემი", "მისი"], answer: "თქვენი", why: "Polite “your” is თქვენი." }, + { q: "How do you say “the city” (ქალაქი)?", en: "", options: ["ქალაქი", "ეს ქალაქი ის", "ის-ქალაქი", "ქალაქმა"], answer: "ქალაქი", why: "No articles: ქალაქი is both “a city” and “the city”." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "plural", + title: "Plurals with -ები", + particle: "-ები", + summary: "Drop the final -ი and add -ები; after a number, keep the singular.", + sections: [ + { + p: "Most nouns make the plural with -ები. A noun in -ი drops it first; a noun in -ა keeps it.", + examples: [ + ["წიგნი → წიგნ{ები}", "ts'igni → ts'ignebi", "book → books"], + ["ბავშვი → ბავშვ{ები}", "bavshvi → bavshvebi", "child → children"], + ["მაგიდა → მაგიდ{ები}", "magida → magidebi", "table → tables"], + ], + }, + { + h: "Numbers take the singular", + p: "After a number, or a word like რამდენი (how many) or ბევრი (many), the noun stays singular: ორი წიგნი “two books”.", + examples: [ + ["{ორი} ბავშვი", "ori bavshvi", "two children"], + ["{სამი} ყავა, თუ შეიძლება.", "Sami q'ava, tu sheidzleba.", "Three coffees, please."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "კაცი → ＿", en: "man → men", options: ["კაცები", "კაციები", "კაცი", "კაცებია"], answer: "კაცები", why: "Drop -ი and add -ები." }, + { q: "ქალი → ＿", en: "woman → women", options: ["ქალები", "ქალიები", "ქალი", "ქალეი"], answer: "ქალები", why: "Same rule: ქალ + ები." }, + { q: "ხუთი ＿", en: "five books", options: ["წიგნი", "წიგნები", "წიგნებს", "წიგნია"], answer: "წიგნი", why: "After a number the noun stays singular." }, + { q: "ეს ჩემი ＿ არიან.", en: "These are my friends. (მეგობარი)", options: ["მეგობრები", "მეგობარები", "მეგობარი", "მეგობრი"], answer: "მეგობრები", why: "მეგობარი loses its last vowel before the ending: მეგობრები." }, + { q: "Which is “many books”?", en: "ბევრი = many", options: ["ბევრი წიგნი", "ბევრი წიგნები", "წიგნები ბევრი", "ბევრები წიგნი"], answer: "ბევრი წიგნი", why: "Like numbers, ბევრი takes a singular noun." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "present", + title: "The present tense", + particle: "ვ- -ს -თ", + summary: "ვ- marks “I” at the front; -ს, -თ and -ენ mark the others at the end.", + sections: [ + { + p: "Many verbs follow one pattern. For წერ “write”: ვწერ I write, წერ you write, წერს he/she writes, ვწერთ we write, წერთ you write (plural), წერენ they write.", + examples: [ + ["{ვ}ცხოვრობ თბილისში.", "Vtskhovrob Tbilisshi.", "I live in Tbilisi."], + ["ის ქართულად ლაპარაკობ{ს}.", "Is kartulad lap'arak'obs.", "He / she speaks Georgian."], + ["ბავშვები თამაშობ{ენ}.", "Bavshvebi tamashoben.", "The children are playing."], + ], + }, + { + h: "Asking with “you”", + p: "The “you” form has no marker at all, so the bare stem is a question to one person: ლაპარაკობ ინგლისურად? “Do you speak English?” Add -თ for polite or plural you.", + examples: [ + ["ინგლისურად ლაპარაკობ{თ}?", "Inglisurad lap'arak'obt?", "Do you speak English? (polite)"], + ["ყავას {ვ}სვამ.", "Q'avas vsvam.", "I am drinking coffee."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "მე წერილს ＿.", en: "I am writing a letter.", options: ["ვწერ", "წერ", "წერს", "წერენ"], answer: "ვწერ", why: "ვ- at the front marks “I”." }, + { q: "ნიკა ჩაის ＿.", en: "Nika drinks tea.", options: ["სვამს", "ვსვამ", "სვამ", "სვამენ"], answer: "სვამს", why: "He or she: -ს at the end." }, + { q: "ჩვენ ქუთაისში ＿.", en: "We live in Kutaisi.", options: ["ვცხოვრობთ", "ვცხოვრობ", "ცხოვრობს", "ცხოვრობენ"], answer: "ვცხოვრობთ", why: "We: ვ- at the front and -თ at the end." }, + { q: "ისინი ქართულად ＿.", en: "They speak Georgian.", options: ["ლაპარაკობენ", "ლაპარაკობს", "ვლაპარაკობ", "ლაპარაკობთ"], answer: "ლაპარაკობენ", why: "They: -ენ." }, + { q: "შენ რას ＿?", en: "What are you eating? (ჭამ-)", options: ["ჭამ", "ვჭამ", "ჭამს", "ჭამენ"], answer: "ჭამ", why: "“You” (one person) is the bare stem." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "places", + title: "In, on and from: -ში, -ზე, -დან", + particle: "-ში -ზე", + summary: "Where English uses a preposition, Georgian adds an ending to the noun.", + sections: [ + { + p: "-ში means “in” or “to”, and -ზე means “on” or “about”. A noun in -ი drops it first: სახლი → სახლში. A noun in -ა keeps it: მაგიდა → მაგიდაზე.", + examples: [ + ["თბილის{ში} ვცხოვრობ.", "Tbilisshi vtskhovrob.", "I live in Tbilisi."], + ["წიგნი მაგიდა{ზე}ა.", "Ts'igni magidazea.", "The book is on the table."], + ["სკოლა{ში} მივდივარ.", "Sk'olashi mivdivar.", "I'm going to school."], + ], + }, + { + h: "From: -დან", + p: "-დან means “from”. It follows the -ი that most names and nouns end in: თბილისი → თბილისიდან, ლონდონი → ლონდონიდან. საიდან? means “from where?”.", + examples: [ + ["საიდან ხარ? — ბათუმი{დან}.", "Saidan khar? — Batumidan.", "Where are you from? — From Batumi."], + ["ლონდონი{დან} ვარ.", "Londonidan var.", "I'm from London."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "ის სახლ＿ არის.", en: "She is at home (in the house).", options: ["ში", "ზე", "დან", "ს"], answer: "ში", why: "-ში = in." }, + { q: "ჩანთა სკამ＿ა.", en: "The bag is on the chair. (სკამი)", options: ["ზე", "ში", "დან", "ებს"], answer: "ზე", why: "-ზე = on; სკამი drops its -ი." }, + { q: "მე ბერლინი＿ ვარ.", en: "I am from Berlin.", options: ["დან", "ში", "ზე", "ს"], answer: "დან", why: "-დან = from." }, + { q: "How do you say “in the city” (ქალაქი)?", en: "", options: ["ქალაქში", "ქალაქიში", "ქალაქზე", "ქალაქიდან"], answer: "ქალაქში", why: "Drop -ი, add -ში." }, + { q: "საიდან ხარ?", en: "What is this question?", options: ["Where are you from?", "Where are you?", "Who are you?", "How are you?"], answer: "Where are you from?", why: "საიდან = from where; სად alone is “where”." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "ar-questions", + title: "არ, ვერ and questions", + particle: "არ ვერ", + summary: "არ is “not”, ვერ is “can't”, and question words go before the verb.", + sections: [ + { + p: "Put არ just before the verb for “not”. ვერ means “cannot”. The answers yes and no are კი (or polite დიახ) and არა.", + examples: [ + ["{არ} ვიცი.", "Ar vitsi.", "I don't know."], + ["{არ} მესმის.", "Ar mesmis.", "I don't understand."], + ["{ვერ} მოვდივარ.", "Ver movdivar.", "I can't come."], + ], + }, + { + h: "Question words", + p: "რა what, ვინ who, სად where, როდის when, რატომ why, როგორ how, რამდენი how many / how much. A yes/no question is a statement with a rising voice.", + examples: [ + ["{როგორ} ხარ?", "Rogor khar?", "How are you?"], + ["{რამდენი} ღირს?", "Ramdeni ghirs?", "How much does it cost?"], + ["{ვინ} არის ეს?", "Vin aris es?", "Who is this?"], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "მე ＿ მესმის.", en: "I don't understand.", options: ["არ", "არა", "ვერ", "კი"], answer: "არ", why: "არ before the verb = not. არა is the answer “no”." }, + { q: "＿ ხარ?", en: "How are you?", options: ["როგორ", "სად", "ვინ", "რა"], answer: "როგორ", why: "როგორ = how." }, + { q: "ტუალეტი ＿ არის?", en: "Where is the toilet?", options: ["სად", "როდის", "რატომ", "რამდენი"], answer: "სად", why: "სად = where." }, + { q: "Polite “yes” is…", en: "", options: ["დიახ", "არა", "არ", "ვერ"], answer: "დიახ", why: "დიახ is polite yes; კი is everyday yes." }, + { q: "ის დღეს ＿ მოდის.", en: "He isn't coming today.", options: ["არ", "არა", "კი", "დიახ"], answer: "არ", why: "არ goes right before the verb. არა and კი are answers on their own." }, + ], + }, + ], +}; diff --git a/languages/georgian/meta.json b/languages/georgian/meta.json index 8047a070..08c02843 100644 --- a/languages/georgian/meta.json +++ b/languages/georgian/meta.json @@ -5,5 +5,6 @@ "writingSystems": ["georgian"], "characterKeys": ["georgian"], "notes": "Georgian in Mkhedruli, which has no capital letters.", - "speech": "ka-GE" + "speech": "ka-GE", + "data": { "grammar": "grammar.js", "vocab": "vocab.js", "reference": "reference.json" } } diff --git a/languages/georgian/reference.json b/languages/georgian/reference.json new file mode 100644 index 00000000..555c1d29 --- /dev/null +++ b/languages/georgian/reference.json @@ -0,0 +1,516 @@ +{ + "id": "georgian", + "entries": [ + { + "id": "at-a-glance", + "topic": "overview", + "title": "Georgian at a glance", + "body": [ + "Georgian is the language of Georgia, spoken by about four million people. It belongs to the Kartvelian family, which is related to no other language family; its close relatives are Mingrelian, Laz and Svan.", + "There are no articles and no grammatical gender. Nouns take case endings and postpositions, and the verb carries prefixes and suffixes for both subject and object. Words can start with long clusters of consonants: გვფრცქვნი (gvprtskvni), “you peel us”." + ], + "examples": [ + { + "t": "{მიყვარს} საქართველო.", + "r": "Miq'vars Sakartvelo.", + "e": "I love Georgia." + } + ], + "tags": [ + "Kartvelian", + "no gender", + "agglutinative" + ] + }, + { + "id": "mkhedruli", + "topic": "script", + "title": "Mkhedruli", + "body": [ + "Modern Georgian is written in Mkhedruli, an alphabet of 33 letters with no capitals. Each letter has one sound, and each sound one letter, so spelling is regular.", + "Two older Georgian scripts, Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri, are still used in the church. Asomtavruli letters (Mtavruli) are sometimes used in titles as if they were capitals." + ], + "table": { + "head": [ + "Letter", + "Sound", + "Letter", + "Sound" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "ა", + "a", + "ბ", + "b" + ], + [ + "გ", + "g", + "დ", + "d" + ], + [ + "ე", + "e", + "ვ", + "v" + ], + [ + "ზ", + "z", + "თ", + "t" + ], + [ + "ი", + "i", + "კ", + "k'" + ], + [ + "ლ", + "l", + "მ", + "m" + ], + [ + "ნ", + "n", + "ო", + "o" + ], + [ + "პ", + "p'", + "ჟ", + "zh" + ], + [ + "რ", + "r", + "ს", + "s" + ], + [ + "ტ", + "t'", + "უ", + "u" + ], + [ + "ფ", + "p", + "ქ", + "k" + ], + [ + "ღ", + "gh", + "ყ", + "q'" + ], + [ + "შ", + "sh", + "ჩ", + "ch" + ], + [ + "ც", + "ts", + "ძ", + "dz" + ], + [ + "წ", + "ts'", + "ჭ", + "ch'" + ], + [ + "ხ", + "kh", + "ჯ", + "j" + ], + [ + "ჰ", + "h", + "", + "" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "script", + "letters" + ] + }, + { + "id": "ejectives", + "topic": "sounds", + "title": "Three kinds of consonant", + "body": "Georgian has three versions of many stops: voiced (b, d, g), breathy (p, t, k, said with a puff of air as in English) and ejective (p', t', k', said with a closed throat and a pop, with no puff). The apostrophe in the romanization marks the ejective one, and mixing them up changes the word.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Voiced", + "Breathy", + "Ejective" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "ბ b", + "ფ p", + "პ p'" + ], + [ + "დ d", + "თ t", + "ტ t'" + ], + [ + "გ g", + "ქ k", + "კ k'" + ], + [ + "ძ dz", + "ც ts", + "წ ts'" + ], + [ + "ჯ j", + "ჩ ch", + "ჭ ch'" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "pronunciation", + "ejectives" + ] + }, + { + "id": "cases", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "Main cases", + "body": "Georgian has seven cases. Here are the forms of კაცი (man) and ქალაქი (city). Which case the subject takes depends on the verb's tense: the ergative -მა is used for the subject of most past-tense verbs.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Case", + "Ending", + "კაცი", + "Use" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "Nominative", + "-ი", + "კაცი", + "subject (present)" + ], + [ + "Ergative", + "-მა", + "კაცმა", + "subject (past)" + ], + [ + "Dative", + "-ს", + "კაცს", + "object; to" + ], + [ + "Genitive", + "-ის", + "კაცის", + "of" + ], + [ + "Instrumental", + "-ით", + "კაცით", + "with, by means of" + ], + [ + "Adverbial", + "-ად", + "კაცად", + "as; in the role of" + ], + [ + "Vocative", + "-ო", + "კაცო", + "calling someone" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "cases", + "ergative" + ] + }, + { + "id": "postpositions", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "Postpositions", + "body": "Where English has prepositions, Georgian adds an ending to the noun. Most attach to the dative (-ს), which then drops its ს.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Ending", + "Meaning", + "Example" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "-ში", + "in, into", + "თბილისში, in Tbilisi" + ], + [ + "-ზე", + "on, about", + "მაგიდაზე, on the table" + ], + [ + "-თან", + "at, near, with (a person)", + "მეგობართან, at a friend's" + ], + [ + "-დან", + "from", + "თბილისიდან, from Tbilisi" + ], + [ + "-ისთვის", + "for", + "შენთვის, for you" + ], + [ + "-ივით", + "like", + "ბავშვივით, like a child" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "postpositions", + "cases" + ] + }, + { + "id": "to-be", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "“To be”", + "body": "In the present, “to be” is very regular. In speech არის (is) often shrinks to -ა on the end of the word before it.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "", + "Singular", + "Plural" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "1st", + "ვარ var", + "ვართ vart" + ], + [ + "2nd", + "ხარ khar", + "ხართ khart" + ], + [ + "3rd", + "არის aris", + "არიან arian" + ] + ] + }, + "examples": [ + { + "t": "ეს ჩემი სახლი{ა}.", + "r": "Es chemi sakhlia.", + "e": "This is my house." + } + ], + "tags": [ + "verbs", + "to be" + ] + }, + { + "id": "inverted", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "Feelings take the dative", + "body": "Verbs of feeling, wanting and having treat the person as the object: მიყვარს is literally “(it) is loved to me”. The prefix shows who: მ- me, გ- you, ∅/ს- him or her.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "", + "I", + "you", + "he / she" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "want", + "მინდა minda", + "გინდა ginda", + "უნდა unda" + ], + [ + "love", + "მიყვარს miq'vars", + "გიყვარს giq'vars", + "უყვარს uq'vars" + ], + [ + "have (a thing)", + "მაქვს makvs", + "გაქვს gakvs", + "აქვს akvs" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "verbs", + "inversion" + ] + }, + { + "id": "numbers", + "topic": "numbers", + "title": "Counting in twenties", + "body": "Above twenty, Georgian counts in twenties, like French quatre-vingts: 30 is “twenty and ten”, 40 is “two twenties”, 50 is “two twenties and ten”. A noun after a number stays singular.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "", + "Georgian", + "Literally" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "1", + "ერთი erti", + "" + ], + [ + "2", + "ორი ori", + "" + ], + [ + "3", + "სამი sami", + "" + ], + [ + "4", + "ოთხი otkhi", + "" + ], + [ + "5", + "ხუთი khuti", + "" + ], + [ + "10", + "ათი ati", + "" + ], + [ + "20", + "ოცი otsi", + "" + ], + [ + "30", + "ოცდაათი otsdaati", + "twenty and ten" + ], + [ + "40", + "ორმოცი ormotsi", + "two twenties" + ], + [ + "60", + "სამოცი samotsi", + "three twenties" + ], + [ + "80", + "ოთხმოცი otkhmotsi", + "four twenties" + ], + [ + "100", + "ასი asi", + "" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "numbers", + "vigesimal" + ] + }, + { + "id": "phrases", + "topic": "phrases", + "title": "Everyday phrases", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "გამარჯობა!", + "r": "Gamarjoba!", + "e": "Hello!" + }, + { + "t": "დიდი მადლობა.", + "r": "Didi madloba.", + "e": "Thank you very much." + }, + { + "t": "ბოდიში, არ მესმის.", + "r": "Bodishi, ar mesmis.", + "e": "Sorry, I don't understand." + }, + { + "t": "ინგლისურად ლაპარაკობთ?", + "r": "Inglisurad lap'arak'obt?", + "e": "Do you speak English?" + }, + { + "t": "რა ღირს?", + "r": "Ra ghirs?", + "e": "How much is it?" + }, + { + "t": "გაუმარჯოს!", + "r": "Gaumarjos!", + "e": "Cheers!" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "phrases", + "travel" + ] + }, + { + "id": "supra", + "topic": "culture", + "title": "The supra", + "body": "A supra is a Georgian feast. A tamada (თამადა, toastmaster) leads a long series of toasts: to peace, to the hosts, to parents, to those who have died, to friendship. Guests drink when the tamada finishes a toast, and wine is the usual drink; beer is traditionally reserved for toasting enemies.", + "tags": [ + "culture", + "food", + "wine" + ] + } + ] +} diff --git a/languages/georgian/vocab.js b/languages/georgian/vocab.js new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e8891cbb --- /dev/null +++ b/languages/georgian/vocab.js @@ -0,0 +1,211 @@ +// Georgian starter words for the Vocabulary Learner. +// Each word is [Georgian, romanization, English, note]. Written for this project. +// An apostrophe in the romanization marks an ejective consonant (k', p', t', ts', ch', q'). +window.LSD_DECKS = window.LSD_DECKS || {}; +window.LSD_DECKS.georgian = [ + { + id: "greetings", + title: "Greetings", + words: [ + ["გამარჯობა", "gamarjoba", "hello", "Literally “victory”. Answer: გაგიმარჯოს, gagimarjos."], + ["დილა მშვიდობისა", "dila mshvidobisa", "good morning", ""], + ["საღამო მშვიდობისა", "saghamo mshvidobisa", "good evening", ""], + ["ღამე მშვიდობისა", "ghame mshvidobisa", "good night", ""], + ["მადლობა", "madloba", "thank you", "დიდი მადლობა: thank you very much."], + ["გთხოვთ", "gtkhovt", "please", "To a friend: გთხოვ, gtkhov."], + ["არაფრის", "arapris", "you're welcome", ""], + ["ბოდიში", "bodishi", "sorry; excuse me", ""], + ["კი", "k'i", "yes", "Polite: დიახ, diakh."], + ["არა", "ara", "no", ""], + ["როგორ ხარ?", "rogor khar?", "how are you?", "Polite: როგორ ბრძანდებით?"], + ["კარგად", "k'argad", "well; fine", ""], + ["სასიამოვნოა", "sasiamovnoa", "pleased to meet you", ""], + ["მე მქვია…", "me mkvia…", "my name is…", ""], + ["ნახვამდის", "nakhvamdis", "goodbye", ""], + ["კეთილი იყოს თქვენი მობრძანება", "k'etili iq'os tkveni mobrdzaneba", "welcome", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "people", + title: "People", + words: [ + ["მე", "me", "I", ""], + ["შენ", "shen", "you (one)", ""], + ["ის", "is", "he; she; it", "No gender difference."], + ["ჩვენ", "chven", "we", ""], + ["თქვენ", "tkven", "you (plural, polite)", ""], + ["ისინი", "isini", "they", ""], + ["კაცი", "k'atsi", "man", ""], + ["ქალი", "kali", "woman", ""], + ["ბავშვი", "bavshvi", "child", ""], + ["მეგობარი", "megobari", "friend", ""], + ["დედა", "deda", "mother", "Note: “mother” is deda and “father” is mama."], + ["მამა", "mama", "father", ""], + ["ძმა", "dzma", "brother", ""], + ["და", "da", "sister", "და also means “and”."], + ["ოჯახი", "ojakhi", "family", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "numbers", + title: "Numbers", + words: [ + ["ნული", "nuli", "zero", ""], + ["ერთი", "erti", "one", ""], + ["ორი", "ori", "two", ""], + ["სამი", "sami", "three", ""], + ["ოთხი", "otkhi", "four", ""], + ["ხუთი", "khuti", "five", ""], + ["ექვსი", "ekvsi", "six", ""], + ["შვიდი", "shvidi", "seven", ""], + ["რვა", "rva", "eight", ""], + ["ცხრა", "tskhra", "nine", ""], + ["ათი", "ati", "ten", ""], + ["ოცი", "otsi", "twenty", "Georgian counts in twenties: ორმოცი (40) is “two twenties”."], + ["ორმოცი", "ormotsi", "forty", ""], + ["ასი", "asi", "a hundred", ""], + ["ათასი", "atasi", "a thousand", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "food", + title: "Food and drink", + words: [ + ["წყალი", "ts'q'ali", "water", ""], + ["ყავა", "q'ava", "coffee", ""], + ["ჩაი", "chai", "tea", ""], + ["ღვინო", "ghvino", "wine", "Georgia is one of the oldest wine-making countries."], + ["პური", "p'uri", "bread", ""], + ["ყველი", "q'veli", "cheese", ""], + ["ხაჭაპური", "khach'ap'uri", "cheese bread", ""], + ["ხინკალი", "khink'ali", "dumplings", ""], + ["ხორცი", "khortsi", "meat", ""], + ["ქათამი", "katami", "chicken", ""], + ["ხილი", "khili", "fruit", ""], + ["ბოსტნეული", "bost'neuli", "vegetables", ""], + ["საჭმელი", "sach'meli", "food", ""], + ["გემრიელია", "gemrielia", "it's delicious", ""], + ["ანგარიში, თუ შეიძლება", "angarishi, tu sheidzleba", "the bill, please", ""], + ["გაუმარჯოს!", "gaumarjos!", "cheers!", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "verbs", + title: "Everyday verbs", + words: [ + ["ვჭამ", "vch'am", "I eat", "შენ ჭამ, ის ჭამს."], + ["ვსვამ", "vsvam", "I drink", "შენ სვამ, ის სვამს."], + ["მივდივარ", "mivdivar", "I am going", ""], + ["მოვდივარ", "movdivar", "I am coming", ""], + ["ვცხოვრობ", "vtskhovrob", "I live", ""], + ["ვლაპარაკობ", "vlap'arak'ob", "I speak", ""], + ["მინდა", "minda", "I want", "გინდა? Do you want?"], + ["მიყვარს", "miq'vars", "I love", ""], + ["მომწონს", "momts'ons", "I like", ""], + ["ვმუშაობ", "vmushaob", "I work", ""], + ["ვსწავლობ", "vsts'avlob", "I study; I learn", ""], + ["ვკითხულობ", "vk'itkhulob", "I read", ""], + ["ვწერ", "vts'er", "I write", ""], + ["ვიცი", "vitsi", "I know", "არ ვიცი: I don't know."], + ["მესმის", "mesmis", "I understand; I hear", "არ მესმის: I don't understand."], + ["შემიძლია", "shemidzlia", "I can", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "describing", + title: "Describing words", + words: [ + ["დიდი", "didi", "big", ""], + ["პატარა", "p'at'ara", "small", ""], + ["კარგი", "k'argi", "good", ""], + ["ცუდი", "tsudi", "bad", ""], + ["ლამაზი", "lamazi", "beautiful", ""], + ["ახალი", "akhali", "new", ""], + ["ძველი", "dzveli", "old", ""], + ["ცხელი", "tskheli", "hot", ""], + ["ცივი", "tsivi", "cold", ""], + ["იაფი", "iapi", "cheap", ""], + ["ძვირი", "dzviri", "expensive", ""], + ["ადვილი", "advili", "easy", ""], + ["რთული", "rtuli", "difficult", ""], + ["ბედნიერი", "bednieri", "happy", ""], + ["დაღლილი", "daghlili", "tired", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "places", + title: "Places", + words: [ + ["სახლი", "sakhli", "house; home", "სახლში: at home."], + ["ქალაქი", "kalaki", "city", ""], + ["ქუჩა", "kucha", "street", ""], + ["მაღაზია", "maghazia", "shop", ""], + ["ბაზარი", "bazari", "market", ""], + ["რესტორანი", "rest'orani", "restaurant", ""], + ["სკოლა", "sk'ola", "school", ""], + ["საავადმყოფო", "saavadmq'opo", "hospital", ""], + ["აფთიაქი", "aptiaki", "pharmacy", ""], + ["სადგური", "sadguri", "station", ""], + ["ზღვა", "zghva", "sea", ""], + ["მთა", "mta", "mountain", ""], + ["ეკლესია", "ek'lesia", "church", ""], + ["ტუალეტი", "t'ualet'i", "toilet", ""], + ["სასტუმრო", "sast'umro", "hotel", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "questions", + title: "Questions", + words: [ + ["რა?", "ra?", "what?", ""], + ["ვინ?", "vin?", "who?", ""], + ["სად?", "sad?", "where?", ""], + ["საიდან?", "saidan?", "where from?", ""], + ["როდის?", "rodis?", "when?", ""], + ["რატომ?", "rat'om?", "why?", ""], + ["როგორ?", "rogor?", "how?", ""], + ["რამდენი?", "ramdeni?", "how many? how much?", ""], + ["რამდენი ღირს?", "ramdeni ghirs?", "how much does it cost?", ""], + ["რომელი?", "romeli?", "which?", ""], + ["გაქვთ…?", "gakvt…?", "do you have…?", ""], + ["შეიძლება?", "sheidzleba?", "may I? is it possible?", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "time", + title: "Time and days", + words: [ + ["დღეს", "dghes", "today", ""], + ["ხვალ", "khval", "tomorrow", ""], + ["გუშინ", "gushin", "yesterday", ""], + ["ახლა", "akhla", "now", ""], + ["მერე", "mere", "later; then", ""], + ["საათი", "saati", "hour; clock; watch", ""], + ["დღე", "dghe", "day", ""], + ["კვირა", "k'vira", "week; Sunday", ""], + ["თვე", "tve", "month", ""], + ["წელი", "ts'eli", "year", ""], + ["ორშაბათი", "orshabati", "Monday", ""], + ["შაბათი", "shabati", "Saturday", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "travel", + title: "Getting around", + words: [ + ["ავტობუსი", "avt'obusi", "bus", ""], + ["მატარებელი", "mat'arebeli", "train", ""], + ["ტაქსი", "t'aksi", "taxi", ""], + ["მანქანა", "mankana", "car", ""], + ["მარშრუტკა", "marshrut'k'a", "minibus", "The shared minibuses that link Georgian towns."], + ["ბილეთი", "bileti", "ticket", ""], + ["პასპორტი", "p'asp'ort'i", "passport", ""], + ["მარჯვნივ", "marjvniv", "to the right", ""], + ["მარცხნივ", "martskhniv", "to the left", ""], + ["პირდაპირ", "p'irdap'ir", "straight on", ""], + ["ახლოს", "akhlos", "near", ""], + ["შორს", "shors", "far", ""], + ["დამეხმარეთ!", "damekhmaret!", "help!", ""], + ], + }, +]; diff --git a/languages/greek/grammar.js b/languages/greek/grammar.js new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ff0a52c8 --- /dev/null +++ b/languages/greek/grammar.js @@ -0,0 +1,200 @@ +// Modern Greek first grammar for the Grammar Learner. Written for this project. +// Examples are [Greek, romanization, English]; {braces} mark the point of the lesson. +// Drills are { q, en, options, answer, why }; ＿ is the blank. +window.GRAMMAR = window.GRAMMAR || {}; +window.GRAMMAR.greek = { + title: "Greek first grammar", + intro: "Modern Greek marks the subject on the verb, so “I” and “you” are usually left out. Every noun is masculine, feminine or neuter, and the article in front of it shows which, and changes when the noun is the object. These lessons cover “to be”, the article and gender, the present tense, saying no and asking questions, the object form, and plurals. The romanization follows modern pronunciation, with an accent on the stressed vowel.", + lessons: [ + { + id: "eimai", + title: "Είμαι, είσαι, είναι — “to be”", + particle: "είμαι", + summary: "The verb “to be”, and why Greek leaves out “I” and “you”.", + sections: [ + { + p: "The ending of the verb already says who: είμαι “I am”, είσαι “you are”, είναι “he, she, it is”. So εγώ (I) and εσύ (you) are only added for emphasis.", + examples: [ + ["{Είμαι} φοιτητής.", "Íme fititís.", "I am a student."], + ["Πού {είσαι};", "Pu íse?", "Where are you?"], + ["Η Μαρία {είναι} γιατρός.", "I María íne giatrós.", "Maria is a doctor."], + ], + }, + { + h: "The plural", + p: "είμαστε “we are”, είστε “you are” (several people, or one person politely), είναι “they are”. Note that είναι serves for both “is” and “are”.", + examples: [ + ["{Είμαστε} φίλοι.", "Ímaste fíli.", "We are friends."], + ["Από πού {είστε};", "Apó pu íste?", "Where are you from? (polite)"], + ["Τα παιδιά {είναι} στο σπίτι.", "Ta pediá íne sto spíti.", "The children are at home."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "＿ από την Αθήνα.", en: "I am from Athens.", options: ["Είμαι", "Είσαι", "Είναι", "Είμαστε"], answer: "Είμαι", why: "“I am” is είμαι; no εγώ is needed." }, + { q: "Ο Νίκος ＿ δάσκαλος.", en: "Nikos is a teacher.", options: ["είναι", "είμαι", "είσαι", "είστε"], answer: "είναι", why: "He, she or it: είναι." }, + { q: "Τι κάνετε; ＿ καλά;", en: "How are you? Are you well? (polite)", options: ["Είστε", "Είσαι", "Είμαστε", "Είμαι"], answer: "Είστε", why: "Polite “you” uses the plural, είστε." }, + { q: "＿ Έλληνες.", en: "We are Greeks.", options: ["Είμαστε", "Είναι", "Είστε", "Είμαι"], answer: "Είμαστε", why: "“We are” is είμαστε." }, + { q: "Τα σπίτια ＿ μεγάλα.", en: "The houses are big.", options: ["είναι", "είμαστε", "είσαι", "είμαι"], answer: "είναι", why: "“They are” is also είναι." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "articles", + title: "Ο, η, το — the article and gender", + particle: "ο η το", + summary: "Three genders, each with its own word for “the”, and the endings that give them away.", + sections: [ + { + p: "“The” is ο before a masculine noun, η before a feminine one and το before a neuter one. The ending is a strong clue: masculine nouns usually end in -ος, -ας, -ης, feminine in -α, -η, neuter in -ο, -ι, -μα.", + examples: [ + ["{ο} δρόμος, {ο} άντρας", "o drómos, o ándras", "the street, the man"], + ["{η} πόλη, {η} θάλασσα", "i póli, i thálassa", "the town, the sea"], + ["{το} νερό, {το} σπίτι, {το} όνομα", "to neró, to spíti, to ónoma", "the water, the house, the name"], + ], + }, + { + h: "“A”", + p: "The word for “a” also has a gender: ένας (masculine), μία / μια (feminine), ένα (neuter). They are also the number “one”. Adjectives take the matching ending: καλός, καλή, καλό (good).", + examples: [ + ["{ένας} καλός φίλος", "énas kalós fílos", "a good friend"], + ["{μια} μεγάλη πόλη", "mia megáli póli", "a big city"], + ["{ένα} μικρό παιδί", "éna mikró pedí", "a small child"], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "＿ θάλασσα είναι ζεστή.", en: "The sea is warm.", options: ["Η", "Ο", "Το"], answer: "Η", why: "θάλασσα ends in -α, a feminine ending: η." }, + { q: "＿ δρόμος είναι μακρύς.", en: "The road is long.", options: ["Ο", "Η", "Το"], answer: "Ο", why: "-ος is the usual masculine ending: ο." }, + { q: "＿ σπίτι είναι μικρό.", en: "The house is small.", options: ["Το", "Ο", "Η"], answer: "Το", why: "Nouns in -ι are neuter: το." }, + { q: "Έχω ＿ αδερφή.", en: "I have a sister.", options: ["μια", "ένας", "ένα"], answer: "μια", why: "αδερφή is feminine, so “a” is μια." }, + { q: "＿ καφές, παρακαλώ.", en: "A coffee, please.", options: ["Ένας", "Μια", "Ένα"], answer: "Ένας", why: "καφές ends in -ές, masculine: ένας." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "present", + title: "The present tense", + particle: "-ω -εις -ει", + summary: "Six endings that say who does it, in the two main verb groups.", + sections: [ + { + p: "Most verbs end in -ω. Keep the stem and change the ending: -ω (I), -εις (you), -ει (he/she), -ουμε (we), -ετε (you all), -ουν (they). For γράφω, to write: γράφω, γράφεις, γράφει, γράφουμε, γράφετε, γράφουν.", + examples: [ + ["{Μένω} στην Αθήνα.", "Méno stin Athína.", "I live in Athens."], + ["Τι {διαβάζεις};", "Ti diavázis?", "What are you reading?"], + ["Τα παιδιά {παίζουν} έξω.", "Ta pediá pézun éxo.", "The children are playing outside."], + ], + }, + { + h: "Verbs stressed on the end", + p: "A second group is stressed on the ending, like μιλάω (to speak): μιλάω, μιλάς, μιλάει, μιλάμε, μιλάτε, μιλάνε. Αγαπάω (love), ρωτάω (ask) and πεινάω (be hungry) go the same way. One present form covers both “I speak” and “I am speaking”.", + examples: [ + ["{Μιλάτε} αγγλικά;", "Miláte angliká?", "Do you speak English?"], + ["{Μιλάω} λίγα ελληνικά.", "Miláo líga elliniká.", "I speak a little Greek."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "Εγώ ＿ καφέ.", en: "I drink coffee. (πίνω)", options: ["πίνω", "πίνεις", "πίνει", "πίνουν"], answer: "πίνω", why: "“I” takes -ω." }, + { q: "Εσύ τι ＿;", en: "What do you want? (θέλω)", options: ["θέλεις", "θέλω", "θέλει", "θέλουμε"], answer: "θέλεις", why: "“You” (one person) takes -εις." }, + { q: "Εμείς ＿ στη Θεσσαλονίκη.", en: "We live in Thessaloniki. (μένω)", options: ["μένουμε", "μένουν", "μένετε", "μένει"], answer: "μένουμε", why: "“We” takes -ουμε." }, + { q: "Η Άννα ＿ γαλλικά.", en: "Anna speaks French. (μιλάω)", options: ["μιλάει", "μιλάω", "μιλάμε", "μιλάνε"], answer: "μιλάει", why: "In the μιλάω group, he/she is μιλάει." }, + { q: "Οι φίλοι μου ＿ μουσική.", en: "My friends listen to music. (ακούω)", options: ["ακούνε", "ακούει", "ακούω", "ακούμε"], answer: "ακούνε", why: "“They” takes -ουν, or -ουνε / -νε in speech; ακούω gives ακούνε." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "den-questions", + title: "Δεν, and asking questions", + particle: "δεν ;", + summary: "Put δεν before the verb to say no; a question needs only a rising voice and a “;”.", + sections: [ + { + p: "To make a verb negative, put δεν right before it. The word order does not change.", + examples: [ + ["{Δεν} καταλαβαίνω.", "Den katalavéno.", "I don't understand."], + ["Ο Πέτρος {δεν} είναι εδώ.", "O Pétros den íne edó.", "Petros isn't here."], + ], + }, + { + h: "Questions", + p: "A yes/no question is the same sentence said with a rising voice. Greek writes the question mark as ;, which looks like an English semicolon. The question words go first: τι (what), πού (where), πότε (when), ποιος (who), γιατί (why), πώς (how), πόσο (how much).", + examples: [ + ["Είσαι καλά{;}", "Íse kalá?", "Are you well?"], + ["{Πού} είναι η τουαλέτα;", "Pu íne i tualéta?", "Where is the toilet?"], + ["{Πόσο} κάνει;", "Póso káni?", "How much is it?"], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "＿ θέλω ψωμί.", en: "I don't want bread.", options: ["Δεν", "Όχι", "Μη", "Ναι"], answer: "Δεν", why: "δεν goes right before the verb. όχι is the word “no” on its own." }, + { q: "＿ είναι το μουσείο;", en: "Where is the museum?", options: ["Πού", "Τι", "Πότε", "Ποιος"], answer: "Πού", why: "πού = where." }, + { q: "＿ είναι αυτός;", en: "Who is he?", options: ["Ποιος", "Πού", "Πώς", "Πόσο"], answer: "Ποιος", why: "ποιος = who." }, + { q: "Which sentence is a question?", en: "", options: ["Μιλάς ελληνικά;", "Μιλάς ελληνικά.", "Μιλάς ελληνικά,", "Μιλάς ελληνικά!"], answer: "Μιλάς ελληνικά;", why: "The Greek question mark is ;." }, + { q: "＿ σε λένε;", en: "What's your name? (How do they call you?)", options: ["Πώς", "Πού", "Γιατί", "Πότε"], answer: "Πώς", why: "Greeks ask “how do they call you?”: Πώς σε λένε;" }, + ], + }, + { + id: "accusative", + title: "The object: τον, την, το", + particle: "τον την", + summary: "When a noun is the object, or comes after a preposition, its article and ending change.", + sections: [ + { + p: "The object of a verb takes the accusative. The article changes: ο → τον, η → την, and το stays. Masculine nouns drop their final -ς: ο φίλος → τον φίλο, ο άντρας → τον άντρα.", + examples: [ + ["Βλέπω {τον} φίλο μου.", "Vlépo ton fílo mu.", "I see my friend."], + ["Ξέρεις {την} Ελένη;", "Xéris tin Eléni?", "Do you know Eleni?"], + ["Πίνω {τον} καφέ.", "Píno ton kafé.", "I am drinking the coffee."], + ], + }, + { + h: "σε + the article: στο, στη, στον", + p: "σε (to, at, in) joins the article: στον (masculine), στη(ν) (feminine), στο (neuter). Prepositions like από (from), με (with) and για (for) also take the accusative.", + examples: [ + ["Πάω {στο} σπίτι.", "Páo sto spíti.", "I'm going home."], + ["Μένει {στην} Κρήτη.", "Méni stin Kríti.", "She lives in Crete."], + ["Μιλάω με {τον} Γιάννη.", "Miláo me ton Giánni.", "I'm talking with Giannis."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "Αγαπώ ＿ θάλασσα.", en: "I love the sea.", options: ["την", "η", "τον", "το"], answer: "την", why: "Feminine object: η becomes την." }, + { q: "Περιμένω ＿ λεωφορείο.", en: "I'm waiting for the bus.", options: ["το", "τον", "την", "ο"], answer: "το", why: "λεωφορείο is neuter; το stays the same." }, + { q: "Ξέρω τον ＿.", en: "I know the teacher. (ο δάσκαλος)", options: ["δάσκαλο", "δάσκαλος", "δάσκαλοι", "δασκάλου"], answer: "δάσκαλο", why: "A masculine object loses its final -ς." }, + { q: "Πάμε ＿ παραλία;", en: "Shall we go to the beach? (η παραλία)", options: ["στην", "στον", "στο", "σε η"], answer: "στην", why: "σε + την = στην." }, + { q: "Είμαι ＿ γραφείο.", en: "I'm at the office. (το γραφείο)", options: ["στο", "στον", "στη", "το"], answer: "στο", why: "σε + το = στο." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "plural", + title: "Plurals: οι and τα", + particle: "οι τα", + summary: "Masculine and feminine plurals take οι; neuter plurals take τα.", + sections: [ + { + p: "“The” in the plural is οι for masculine and feminine nouns and τα for neuter ones. Common endings: -ος → -οι, -ας and -ης → -ες, -α and -η → -ες, -ο → -α, -ι → -ια, -μα → -ματα.", + examples: [ + ["{οι} φίλοι", "i fíli", "the friends (ο φίλος)"], + ["{οι} γυναίκες", "i ginékes", "the women (η γυναίκα)"], + ["{τα} βιβλία, {τα} παιδιά", "ta vivlía, ta pediá", "the books, the children"], + ["{τα} ονόματα", "ta onómata", "the names (το όνομα)"], + ], + }, + { + h: "Adjectives follow", + p: "Adjectives take a plural ending too: καλοί (masculine), καλές (feminine), καλά (neuter). And the verb is plural: τα παιδιά είναι, οι φίλοι μένουν.", + examples: [ + ["Τα σπίτια είναι {μεγάλα}.", "Ta spítia íne megála.", "The houses are big."], + ["Οι μέρες είναι {ζεστές}.", "I méres íne zestés.", "The days are hot."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "＿ παιδιά παίζουν.", en: "The children are playing.", options: ["Τα", "Οι", "Το", "Η"], answer: "Τα", why: "παιδί is neuter; neuter plurals take τα." }, + { q: "Οι ＿ είναι εδώ.", en: "The friends are here. (ο φίλος)", options: ["φίλοι", "φίλος", "φίλα", "φίλες"], answer: "φίλοι", why: "-ος becomes -οι." }, + { q: "Δύο ＿, παρακαλώ.", en: "Two coffees, please. (ο καφές)", options: ["καφέδες", "καφέ", "καφές", "καφέα"], answer: "καφέδες", why: "Some masculines in -ές add -δες; ask for δύο καφέδες." }, + { q: "Τα ＿ μου είναι στην τσάντα.", en: "My books are in the bag. (το βιβλίο)", options: ["βιβλία", "βιβλίοι", "βιβλίες", "βιβλίο"], answer: "βιβλία", why: "Neuter -ο becomes -α." }, + { q: "Οι πόλεις είναι ＿.", en: "The cities are beautiful. (ωραίος, -α, -ο)", options: ["ωραίες", "ωραίοι", "ωραία", "ωραίος"], answer: "ωραίες", why: "πόλη is feminine; feminine plural adjectives end in -ες." }, + ], + }, + ], +}; diff --git a/languages/greek/meta.json b/languages/greek/meta.json index 09f1264c..ee924a49 100644 --- a/languages/greek/meta.json +++ b/languages/greek/meta.json @@ -5,5 +5,6 @@ "writingSystems": ["greek"], "characterKeys": ["greek"], "notes": "Modern Greek in the Greek alphabet, 24 letters with a stress mark.", - "speech": "el-GR" + "speech": "el-GR", + "data": { "grammar": "grammar.js", "reference": "reference.json" } } diff --git a/languages/greek/reference.json b/languages/greek/reference.json new file mode 100644 index 00000000..f198e426 --- /dev/null +++ b/languages/greek/reference.json @@ -0,0 +1,154 @@ +{ + "id": "greek", + "entries": [ + { + "id": "at-a-glance", "topic": "overview", "title": "Greek at a glance", + "body": [ + "Modern Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus, spoken by about 13 million people. It is its own branch of the Indo-European family, and it has been written in the Greek alphabet for nearly three thousand years.", + "Nouns have three genders and change their ending for case; the article in front shows both. Verbs mark the person with an ending, so pronouns are usually left out. Word order is flexible, though subject–verb–object is the most common." + ], + "examples": [ + { "t": "{Μιλάω} λίγα ελληνικά.", "r": "Miláo líga elliniká.", "e": "I speak a little Greek." } + ], + "tags": ["Indo-European", "gender", "cases"] + }, + { + "id": "alphabet", "topic": "script", "title": "The alphabet", + "body": [ + "Greek has 24 letters, each with a capital and a small form. Sigma has two small forms: σ inside a word and ς at the end.", + "Several letters look like Latin ones but sound different: Η η is i, Ρ ρ is r, Ν ν is n, Υ υ is i, Χ χ is the ch in Bach, and Β β is v." + ], + "table": { + "head": ["Letter", "Name", "Sound"], + "rows": [ + ["Α α", "άλφα", "a"], ["Β β", "βήτα", "v"], ["Γ γ", "γάμμα", "gh, or y before e/i"], + ["Δ δ", "δέλτα", "th as in this"], ["Ε ε", "έψιλον", "e"], ["Ζ ζ", "ζήτα", "z"], + ["Η η", "ήτα", "i"], ["Θ θ", "θήτα", "th as in thin"], ["Ι ι", "γιώτα", "i"], + ["Κ κ", "κάππα", "k"], ["Λ λ", "λάμδα", "l"], ["Μ μ", "μι", "m"], + ["Ν ν", "νι", "n"], ["Ξ ξ", "ξι", "ks"], ["Ο ο", "όμικρον", "o"], + ["Π π", "πι", "p"], ["Ρ ρ", "ρο", "r (tapped)"], ["Σ σ ς", "σίγμα", "s"], + ["Τ τ", "ταυ", "t"], ["Υ υ", "ύψιλον", "i"], ["Φ φ", "φι", "f"], + ["Χ χ", "χι", "ch as in Bach"], ["Ψ ψ", "ψι", "ps"], ["Ω ω", "ωμέγα", "o"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["script", "letters"] + }, + { + "id": "digraphs", "topic": "sounds", "title": "Letter pairs", + "body": "Some pairs of letters make one sound. Several spellings share the sound i, so spelling has to be learned word by word.", + "table": { + "head": ["Pair", "Sound", "Example"], + "rows": [ + ["ει, οι, υι", "i", "{ει}μαι, “I am”"], + ["αι", "e", "κ{αι}, “and”"], + ["ου", "u", "π{ου}, “where”"], + ["αυ, ευ", "av / ev, or af / ef", "{αυ}τός, “he”"], + ["μπ", "b (mb inside a word)", "{μπ}ύρα, “beer”"], + ["ντ", "d (nd inside a word)", "{ντ}ομάτα, “tomato”"], + ["γκ, γγ", "g (ng inside a word)", "{γκ}αράζ, “garage”"], + ["τσ, τζ", "ts, dz", "{τσ}άι, “tea”"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["pronunciation", "digraphs"] + }, + { + "id": "stress", "topic": "sounds", "title": "The stress mark", + "body": "Every word of more than one syllable carries an accent (τόνος) on its stressed vowel. It matters: πότε means “when?” but ποτέ means “never”. Capitals written in full (ΑΘΗΝΑ) drop the accent.", + "examples": [ + { "t": "π{ό}τε · ποτ{έ}", "r": "póte · poté", "e": "when? · never" }, + { "t": "ν{ό}μος · νομ{ό}ς", "r": "nómos · nomós", "e": "law · prefecture" } + ], + "tags": ["stress", "accent"] + }, + { + "id": "punctuation", "topic": "script", "title": "Punctuation", + "body": "Greek writes the question mark as ; and the raised dot · as a semicolon. Commas and full stops are the same as in English.", + "examples": [ + { "t": "Τι κάνεις{;}", "r": "Ti kánis?", "e": "How are you?" } + ], + "tags": ["punctuation"] + }, + { + "id": "articles", "topic": "grammar", "title": "The article", + "body": "“The” agrees with its noun in gender, number and case. The forms below are the ones a beginner meets most: subject (nominative) and object (accusative).", + "table": { + "head": ["", "Masculine", "Feminine", "Neuter"], + "rows": [ + ["Subject, singular", "ο", "η", "το"], + ["Object, singular", "τον", "την", "το"], + ["Subject, plural", "οι", "οι", "τα"], + ["Object, plural", "τους", "τις", "τα"], + ["“a, one”", "ένας", "μία / μια", "ένα"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["articles", "gender", "cases"] + }, + { + "id": "noun-endings", "topic": "grammar", "title": "Common noun endings", + "body": "The ending of a noun usually gives away its gender, and tells you how it makes its plural.", + "table": { + "head": ["Gender", "Singular", "Plural", "Example"], + "rows": [ + ["Masculine", "-ος", "-οι", "ο φίλος → οι φίλοι"], + ["Masculine", "-ας", "-ες", "ο άντρας → οι άντρες"], + ["Masculine", "-ης", "-ες", "ο μαθητής → οι μαθητές"], + ["Feminine", "-α", "-ες", "η ώρα → οι ώρες"], + ["Feminine", "-η", "-ες", "η φωνή → οι φωνές"], + ["Neuter", "-ο", "-α", "το βιβλίο → τα βιβλία"], + ["Neuter", "-ι", "-ια", "το σπίτι → τα σπίτια"], + ["Neuter", "-μα", "-ματα", "το όνομα → τα ονόματα"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["nouns", "plural"] + }, + { + "id": "present", "topic": "verbs", "title": "The present tense", + "body": "Two main patterns. Verbs stressed before the ending (group A) and verbs stressed on the ending (group B). Είμαι, “to be”, is irregular.", + "table": { + "head": ["", "γράφω, write", "μιλάω, speak", "είμαι, be"], + "rows": [ + ["I", "γράφω", "μιλάω", "είμαι"], + ["you", "γράφεις", "μιλάς", "είσαι"], + ["he, she, it", "γράφει", "μιλάει", "είναι"], + ["we", "γράφουμε", "μιλάμε", "είμαστε"], + ["you (pl.)", "γράφετε", "μιλάτε", "είστε"], + ["they", "γράφουν", "μιλάνε", "είναι"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["verbs", "present"] + }, + { + "id": "numbers", "topic": "numbers", "title": "Numbers", + "body": "One, three and four change with the gender of the noun (ένας / μία / ένα, τρεις / τρία, τέσσερις / τέσσερα). The rest do not.", + "table": { + "head": ["", "Greek", "Romanization"], + "rows": [ + ["1", "ένα", "éna"], ["2", "δύο", "dío"], ["3", "τρία", "tría"], ["4", "τέσσερα", "téssera"], + ["5", "πέντε", "pénde"], ["6", "έξι", "éxi"], ["7", "επτά / εφτά", "eptá / eftá"], + ["8", "οκτώ / οχτώ", "októ / ochtó"], ["9", "εννέα / εννιά", "ennéa / enniá"], ["10", "δέκα", "déka"], + ["20", "είκοσι", "íkosi"], ["100", "εκατό", "ekató"], ["1000", "χίλια", "chília"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["numbers"] + }, + { + "id": "phrases", "topic": "phrases", "title": "Everyday phrases", + "examples": [ + { "t": "Γεια σας.", "r": "Giá sas.", "e": "Hello. (polite or to several people)" }, + { "t": "Καλημέρα.", "r": "Kaliméra.", "e": "Good morning." }, + { "t": "Ευχαριστώ πολύ.", "r": "Efcharistó polí.", "e": "Thank you very much." }, + { "t": "Παρακαλώ.", "r": "Parakaló.", "e": "Please. / You're welcome." }, + { "t": "Συγγνώμη, δεν καταλαβαίνω.", "r": "Signómi, den katalavéno.", "e": "Sorry, I don't understand." }, + { "t": "Πόσο κάνει;", "r": "Póso káni?", "e": "How much is it?" }, + { "t": "Τον λογαριασμό, παρακαλώ.", "r": "Ton logariasmó, parakaló.", "e": "The bill, please." }, + { "t": "Στην υγειά μας!", "r": "Stin igiá mas!", "e": "Cheers! (to our health)" } + ], + "tags": ["phrases", "travel"] + }, + { + "id": "nai-ochi", "topic": "culture", "title": "Ναι means yes", + "body": "Ναι (ne) is “yes” and όχι (óchi) is “no”, the reverse of what English ears expect. In conversation a small upward nod with raised eyebrows, often with a click of the tongue, also means no.", + "tags": ["culture", "gestures"] + } + ] +} diff --git a/languages/hebrew/grammar.js b/languages/hebrew/grammar.js new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e1ee19c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/languages/hebrew/grammar.js @@ -0,0 +1,197 @@ +// Modern Hebrew first grammar for the Grammar Learner. Written for this project. +// Examples are [Hebrew, transliteration, English]; {braces} mark the point of the lesson. +// Drills are { q, en, options, answer, why }; ＿ is the blank. +window.GRAMMAR = window.GRAMMAR || {}; +window.GRAMMAR.hebrew = { + title: "Hebrew first grammar", + intro: "Modern Hebrew is written right to left, usually without vowel marks, and builds words from three-consonant roots. There is no “am / is / are” in the present tense, “the” is a single letter joined to the word, and nouns, adjectives and verbs all mark masculine or feminine. These lessons cover sentences without “to be”, ה־ for “the”, gender and adjectives, the present tense, יש and אין for “there is” and “have”, and the little prepositions that join the front of a word. Transliteration follows modern Israeli pronunciation: ch is the throaty sound in Bach.", + lessons: [ + { + id: "pronouns", + title: "I, you, he — no “to be”", + particle: "אני", + summary: "In the present tense, Hebrew just puts the subject next to what it is.", + sections: [ + { + p: "There is no word for “am / is / are” in the present. אני סטודנט is literally “I student”. The pronouns: אני I, אתה you (a man), את you (a woman), הוא he, היא she.", + examples: [ + ["{אני} מורה.", "Ani more.", "I am a teacher. (a man speaking)"], + ["{את} ישראלית?", "At yisraelit?", "Are you Israeli? (to a woman)"], + ["{הוא} בבית.", "Hu ba-bayit.", "He is at home."], + ], + }, + { + h: "The plural", + p: "אנחנו we, אתם you (several, or mixed), אתן you (several women), הם they (men or mixed), הן they (women).", + examples: [ + ["{אנחנו} חברים.", "Anachnu chaverim.", "We are friends."], + ["{הם} בתל אביב.", "Hem be-Tel Aviv.", "They are in Tel Aviv."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "＿ רופאה.", en: "She is a doctor.", options: ["היא", "הוא", "את", "הם"], answer: "היא", why: "היא = she. No word for “is” is needed." }, + { q: "＿ מאיפה?", en: "Where are you from? (to a man)", options: ["אתה", "את", "אתם", "הוא"], answer: "אתה", why: "To one man: אתה." }, + { q: "＿ סטודנטים.", en: "We are students.", options: ["אנחנו", "אני", "הם", "אתם"], answer: "אנחנו", why: "אנחנו = we." }, + { q: "What does «הוא בבית» mean?", en: "", options: ["He is at home.", "He was at home.", "His house.", "Is he home?"], answer: "He is at home.", why: "The present needs no verb: “he at-home”." }, + { q: "＿ בעבודה.", en: "They (women) are at work.", options: ["הן", "הם", "אתן", "היא"], answer: "הן", why: "A group of women is הן; mixed or male is הם." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "ha", + title: "ה־ — “the”", + particle: "ה־", + summary: "“The” is the letter ה joined to the front of the word; there is no “a”.", + sections: [ + { + p: "Add ה (ha-) to the front of a noun to make it definite: בית “a house”, הבית “the house”. There is no word for “a”: בית already means “a house”.", + examples: [ + ["{ה}ספר", "ha-sefer", "the book"], + ["{ה}ילדה", "ha-yalda", "the girl"], + ["{ה}עיר", "ha-ir", "the city"], + ], + }, + { + h: "“This is”", + p: "זה (this, masculine) and זאת (this, feminine) make the simplest sentences: זה ספר, “this is a book”. Put ה on the noun and it means “this book”: הספר הזה.", + examples: [ + ["{זה} הבית שלי.", "Ze ha-bayit sheli.", "This is my house."], + ["{זאת} מורה חדשה.", "Zot mora chadasha.", "This is a new teacher."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "＿כלב גדול.", en: "The dog is big.", options: ["ה", "ב", "ל", "מ"], answer: "ה", why: "ה joined to the noun means “the”." }, + { q: "What does «ספר» mean on its own?", en: "", options: ["a book", "the book", "books", "this book"], answer: "a book", why: "Hebrew has no word for “a”; a bare noun is indefinite." }, + { q: "＿ אמא שלי.", en: "This is my mother.", options: ["זאת", "זה", "הוא", "אלה"], answer: "זאת", why: "אמא is feminine, so “this” is זאת." }, + { q: "＿ השולחן.", en: "This is the table.", options: ["זה", "זאת", "היא", "את"], answer: "זה", why: "שולחן is masculine: זה." }, + { q: "How do you write “the city” (עיר)?", en: "", options: ["העיר", "עירה", "לעיר", "בעיר"], answer: "העיר", why: "ה + עיר = העיר." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "gender", + title: "Gender and adjectives", + particle: "־ה ־ת", + summary: "Feminine words usually end in ־ה or ־ת; adjectives follow the noun and match it.", + sections: [ + { + p: "Nouns are masculine or feminine. Most feminine nouns end in ־ה (-a) or ־ת (-t): ילדה girl, מכונית car. The adjective comes after the noun and adds the same ending: ילד גדול, ילדה גדולה.", + examples: [ + ["ילד {קטן}", "yeled katan", "a small boy"], + ["ילדה {קטנה}", "yalda ktana", "a small girl"], + ["ילדים {קטנים}", "yeladim ktanim", "small children"], + ], + }, + { + h: "“The” on both", + p: "When the noun has ה, the adjective takes ה too: הבית הגדול “the big house”. Without the second ה it is a sentence: הבית גדול “the house is big”.", + examples: [ + ["{ה}בית {ה}גדול", "ha-bayit ha-gadol", "the big house"], + ["{ה}בית גדול.", "Ha-bayit gadol.", "The house is big."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "מכונית ＿", en: "a new car (new = חדש)", options: ["חדשה", "חדש", "חדשים", "חדשות"], answer: "חדשה", why: "מכונית is feminine, so the adjective adds ־ה." }, + { q: "ספר ＿", en: "a good book (good = טוב)", options: ["טוב", "טובה", "טובים", "טובות"], answer: "טוב", why: "ספר is masculine singular." }, + { q: "הילדה ＿", en: "the pretty girl", options: ["היפה", "יפה", "יפים", "היפים"], answer: "היפה", why: "“The girl” has ה, so the adjective needs ה too." }, + { q: "What does «החדר קטן» mean?", en: "חדר = room", options: ["The room is small.", "The small room.", "A small room.", "Small rooms."], answer: "The room is small.", why: "Only the noun has ה, so it is a sentence." }, + { q: "Which word is most likely feminine?", en: "", options: ["משפחה", "שולחן", "ספר", "בית"], answer: "משפחה", why: "It ends in ־ה, the commonest feminine ending." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "present", + title: "The present tense", + particle: "כותב/ת", + summary: "Present-tense verbs change like adjectives: four forms for gender and number.", + sections: [ + { + p: "The present tense doesn't change for I, you or he. It changes for gender and number, like an adjective: כותב (a man writes), כותבת (a woman writes), כותבים (men or a mixed group), כותבות (women).", + examples: [ + ["אני {גר} בירושלים.", "Ani gar bi-Yerushalayim.", "I live in Jerusalem. (a man)"], + ["היא {לומדת} עברית.", "Hi lomedet ivrit.", "She is learning Hebrew."], + ["הם {עובדים} היום.", "Hem ovdim hayom.", "They work today."], + ], + }, + { + h: "Saying no", + p: "לא before the verb makes it negative: אני לא מבין, “I don't understand”. A woman says מבינה.", + examples: [ + ["אני {לא} מבינה.", "Ani lo mevina.", "I don't understand. (a woman)"], + ["הוא {לא} מדבר אנגלית.", "Hu lo medaber anglit.", "He doesn't speak English."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "דנה ＿ פיתה.", en: "Dana is eating a pita.", options: ["אוכלת", "אוכל", "אוכלים", "אוכלות"], answer: "אוכלת", why: "One woman: the feminine singular in ־ת." }, + { q: "אנחנו ＿ בחיפה.", en: "We (a mixed group) live in Haifa.", options: ["גרים", "גר", "גרה", "גרות"], answer: "גרים", why: "Mixed plural takes ־ים." }, + { q: "אתה ＿ עברית?", en: "Do you speak Hebrew? (to a man)", options: ["מדבר", "מדברת", "מדברים", "מדברות"], answer: "מדבר", why: "One man: the basic masculine form." }, + { q: "אני ＿ אוהבת קפה.", en: "I don't like coffee. (a woman)", options: ["לא", "אין", "אל", "בלי"], answer: "לא", why: "לא before the verb means “not”." }, + { q: "הבנות ＿ ספרים.", en: "The girls read books.", options: ["קוראות", "קוראים", "קורא", "קוראת"], answer: "קוראות", why: "A group of women: ־ות." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "yesh-ein", + title: "יש and אין — there is, I have", + particle: "יש לי", + summary: "יש means “there is”, אין “there isn't”; with ל־ they mean “have”.", + sections: [ + { + p: "יש means “there is / there are” and אין “there isn't / aren't”. Neither changes for gender or number.", + examples: [ + ["{יש} חלב במקרר.", "Yesh chalav ba-mekarer.", "There is milk in the fridge."], + ["{אין} בעיה.", "Ein be'aya.", "No problem. (there isn't a problem)"], + ], + }, + { + h: "Having", + p: "Hebrew has no verb “to have”. It says “there is to me”: יש לי I have, יש לך you have (לְךָ to a man, לָךְ to a woman), יש לו he has, יש לה she has, יש לנו we have. Swap יש for אין to say “don't have”.", + examples: [ + ["{יש לי} אח.", "Yesh li ach.", "I have a brother."], + ["{אין לנו} זמן.", "Ein lanu zman.", "We don't have time."], + ["{יש לך} עט?", "Yesh lecha et?", "Do you have a pen? (to a man)"], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "＿ לי שתי אחיות.", en: "I have two sisters.", options: ["יש", "אין", "זה", "הוא"], answer: "יש", why: "יש לי = I have." }, + { q: "＿ כסף.", en: "There's no money.", options: ["אין", "יש", "לא", "בלי"], answer: "אין", why: "“There isn't” is אין, not לא." }, + { q: "יש ＿ מכונית.", en: "She has a car.", options: ["לה", "לו", "לי", "לנו"], answer: "לה", why: "לה = to her." }, + { q: "אין ＿ ילדים.", en: "We don't have children.", options: ["לנו", "לי", "להם", "לו"], answer: "לנו", why: "לנו = to us." }, + { q: "What does «יש לו כלב» mean?", en: "", options: ["He has a dog.", "I have a dog.", "There is no dog.", "Is it a dog?"], answer: "He has a dog.", why: "לו = to him: “there is to him a dog”." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "prefixes", + title: "ב־, ל־, מ־ and של", + particle: "ב ל מ", + summary: "In, to and from are single letters joined to the next word; של means “of”.", + sections: [ + { + p: "Three common prepositions are one letter long and join the next word: ב־ in/at, ל־ to/for, מ־ from. Before ה they swallow it: ב + הבית = בבית (ba-bayit), “in the house”.", + examples: [ + ["אני גר {ב}תל אביב.", "Ani gar be-Tel Aviv.", "I live in Tel Aviv."], + ["אני נוסע {ל}אילת.", "Ani nose'a le-Eilat.", "I'm travelling to Eilat."], + ["היא {מ}ניו יורק.", "Hi mi-New York.", "She is from New York."], + ], + }, + { + h: "של — of, belonging to", + p: "של means “of”. With endings it means “my, your…”: שלי mine, שלך yours, שלו his, שלה hers. It comes after the noun, and the noun takes ה: הספר שלי, “my book”.", + examples: [ + ["הבית {שלי}", "ha-bayit sheli", "my house"], + ["החבר {שלה}", "ha-chaver shela", "her friend"], + ["הספר {של} דני", "ha-sefer shel Dani", "Danny's book"], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "אני ＿ירושלים.", en: "I am from Jerusalem.", options: ["מ", "ב", "ל", "ה"], answer: "מ", why: "מ־ = from." }, + { q: "הם ＿בית.", en: "They are at home.", options: ["ב", "ל", "מ", "ש"], answer: "ב", why: "ב־ = in, at; ב + הבית is written בבית." }, + { q: "האוטובוס הזה נוסע ＿חיפה?", en: "Does this bus go to Haifa?", options: ["ל", "מ", "ב", "ה"], answer: "ל", why: "ל־ = to." }, + { q: "האמא ＿", en: "my mother", options: ["שלי", "שלו", "שלה", "של"], answer: "שלי", why: "שלי = my, after the noun." }, + { q: "הטלפון ＿ יוסי", en: "Yossi's phone", options: ["של", "שלי", "ל", "מ"], answer: "של", why: "של = of: “the phone of Yossi”." }, + ], + }, + ], +}; diff --git a/languages/hebrew/meta.json b/languages/hebrew/meta.json index ade2b51d..905efc4b 100644 --- a/languages/hebrew/meta.json +++ b/languages/hebrew/meta.json @@ -6,5 +6,6 @@ "characterKeys": ["hebrew"], "notes": "Modern Hebrew, written right to left; vowel points are usually left out.", "speech": "he-IL", - "direction": "rtl" + "direction": "rtl", + "data": { "grammar": "grammar.js", "vocab": "vocab.js", "reference": "reference.json" } } diff --git a/languages/hebrew/reference.json b/languages/hebrew/reference.json new file mode 100644 index 00000000..13291150 --- /dev/null +++ b/languages/hebrew/reference.json @@ -0,0 +1,123 @@ +{ + "id": "hebrew", + "entries": [ + { + "id": "at-a-glance", "topic": "overview", "title": "Hebrew at a glance", + "body": [ + "Modern Hebrew is a Semitic language, related to Arabic and Aramaic, and the main language of Israel. It was revived as an everyday spoken language in the late 19th and early 20th centuries after centuries of use mainly in prayer and writing.", + "Words are built from roots of three consonants: כ־ת־ב (k-t-v) gives כותב “writes”, מכתב “letter” and כתובת “address”. Nouns, adjectives and verbs mark masculine or feminine, and the present tense has no verb “to be”." + ], + "examples": [ + { "t": "אני {לומד} עברית.", "r": "Ani lomed ivrit.", "e": "I am learning Hebrew. (a man)" } + ], + "tags": ["Semitic", "roots", "gender"] + }, + { + "id": "alephbet", "topic": "script", "title": "The alef-bet", + "body": [ + "Hebrew has 22 letters, all consonants, written right to left. There are no capitals. Five letters take a different shape at the end of a word: כ ך, מ ם, נ ן, פ ף, צ ץ.", + "A few letters also stand for vowels: ו for o or u, י for i or e. The letters ב, כ and פ have two sounds each (b/v, k/ch, p/f)." + ], + "table": { + "head": ["Letter", "Name", "Sound"], + "rows": [ + ["א", "alef", "silent, or a glottal stop"], ["ב", "bet / vet", "b or v"], ["ג", "gimel", "g"], + ["ד", "dalet", "d"], ["ה", "he", "h (often silent at the end)"], ["ו", "vav", "v, or the vowel o / u"], + ["ז", "zayin", "z"], ["ח", "chet", "ch as in Bach"], ["ט", "tet", "t"], + ["י", "yod", "y, or the vowel i / e"], ["כ ך", "kaf / chaf", "k or ch"], ["ל", "lamed", "l"], + ["מ ם", "mem", "m"], ["נ ן", "nun", "n"], ["ס", "samech", "s"], + ["ע", "ayin", "silent, or a glottal stop"], ["פ ף", "pe / fe", "p or f"], ["צ ץ", "tsadi", "ts"], + ["ק", "kuf", "k"], ["ר", "resh", "r (in the throat)"], ["ש", "shin / sin", "sh or s"], ["ת", "tav", "t"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["script", "letters", "final forms"] + }, + { + "id": "niqqud", "topic": "script", "title": "Vowel points", + "body": "Vowels can be shown with dots and dashes under, over or inside the letters (ניקוד, niqqud). Children's books, poetry, prayer books and dictionaries use them; newspapers, signs and everyday writing leave them out, and readers fill in the vowels from context.", + "examples": [ + { "t": "שָׁלוֹם · שלום", "r": "shalom", "e": "the same word with and without vowel points" }, + { "t": "סֵפֶר · סַפָּר · סְפָר", "r": "sefer · sapar · sfar", "e": "book · barber · frontier: all written ספר without points" } + ], + "tags": ["vowels", "niqqud"] + }, + { + "id": "sounds", "topic": "sounds", "title": "Sounds to watch", + "body": "Modern Israeli Hebrew has five vowels: a, e, i, o, u. The stress usually falls on the last syllable. Two pairs of letters now sound the same for most speakers: ח and כ (ch), and א and ע (silent or a light catch). ר is said in the throat, like French r.", + "examples": [ + { "t": "חם · כמה", "r": "cham · kama", "e": "hot · how much (ח and כ both ch / k)" } + ], + "tags": ["pronunciation", "stress"] + }, + { + "id": "pronouns", "topic": "grammar", "title": "Personal pronouns", + "body": "“You” and “they” have separate masculine and feminine forms. A mixed group takes the masculine.", + "table": { + "head": ["", "Singular", "Plural"], + "rows": [ + ["1st", "אני ani", "אנחנו anachnu"], + ["2nd masc.", "אתה ata", "אתם atem"], + ["2nd fem.", "את at", "אתן aten"], + ["3rd masc.", "הוא hu", "הם hem"], + ["3rd fem.", "היא hi", "הן hen"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["pronouns", "gender"] + }, + { + "id": "present", "topic": "verbs", "title": "The present tense", + "body": "The present tense has four forms, chosen by the gender and number of the subject, not by the person. Past and future, which come later, change for person too.", + "table": { + "head": ["", "to write (כ־ת־ב)", "to speak (ד־ב־ר)"], + "rows": [ + ["masc. sing.", "כותב kotev", "מדבר medaber"], + ["fem. sing.", "כותבת kotevet", "מדברת medaberet"], + ["masc. plural", "כותבים kotvim", "מדברים medabrim"], + ["fem. plural", "כותבות kotvot", "מדברות medabrot"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["verbs", "present", "binyanim"] + }, + { + "id": "et", "topic": "grammar", "title": "את before a definite object", + "body": "When the object of a verb is definite (it has ה־, or it is a name), Hebrew puts the little word את (et) in front of it. With an indefinite object there is no את. It has no English translation.", + "examples": [ + { "t": "אני רואה {את} הים.", "r": "Ani ro'e et ha-yam.", "e": "I see the sea." }, + { "t": "אני רואה ים.", "r": "Ani ro'e yam.", "e": "I see a sea." }, + { "t": "אתה מכיר {את} דנה?", "r": "Ata makir et Dana?", "e": "Do you know Dana?" } + ], + "tags": ["objects", "et"] + }, + { + "id": "numbers", "topic": "numbers", "title": "Numbers", + "body": "Numbers have masculine and feminine forms. Counting aloud, telling the time and saying prices use the feminine forms shown here.", + "table": { + "head": ["", "Hebrew", "Transliteration"], + "rows": [ + ["1", "אחת", "achat"], ["2", "שתיים", "shtayim"], ["3", "שלוש", "shalosh"], ["4", "ארבע", "arba"], + ["5", "חמש", "chamesh"], ["6", "שש", "shesh"], ["7", "שבע", "sheva"], ["8", "שמונה", "shmone"], + ["9", "תשע", "tesha"], ["10", "עשר", "eser"], ["20", "עשרים", "esrim"], ["100", "מאה", "me'a"], ["1000", "אלף", "elef"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["numbers", "gender"] + }, + { + "id": "phrases", "topic": "phrases", "title": "Everyday phrases", + "examples": [ + { "t": "שלום, מה נשמע?", "r": "Shalom, ma nishma?", "e": "Hi, how's it going?" }, + { "t": "תודה רבה.", "r": "Toda raba.", "e": "Thank you very much." }, + { "t": "סליחה, איפה התחנה?", "r": "Slicha, eifo ha-tachana?", "e": "Excuse me, where is the station?" }, + { "t": "כמה זה עולה?", "r": "Kama ze ole?", "e": "How much does this cost?" }, + { "t": "אני לא מבין / מבינה.", "r": "Ani lo mevin / mevina.", "e": "I don't understand. (man / woman)" }, + { "t": "אפשר את החשבון?", "r": "Efshar et ha-cheshbon?", "e": "Could I have the bill?" }, + { "t": "שבת שלום!", "r": "Shabat shalom!", "e": "Have a peaceful Sabbath! (Friday and Saturday)" } + ], + "tags": ["phrases", "travel"] + }, + { + "id": "week", "topic": "culture", "title": "The Israeli week", + "body": "The working week runs Sunday to Thursday, and Friday is a short day. Shabbat runs from sunset on Friday to nightfall on Saturday; many shops and most public transport stop. The days are numbered: יום ראשון “first day” is Sunday, יום שני Monday, and so on to יום שישי, Friday.", + "tags": ["culture", "Shabbat", "days"] + } + ] +} diff --git a/languages/hebrew/vocab.js b/languages/hebrew/vocab.js new file mode 100644 index 00000000..074a1da9 --- /dev/null +++ b/languages/hebrew/vocab.js @@ -0,0 +1,212 @@ +// Modern Hebrew starter words for the Vocabulary Learner. +// Each word is [Hebrew, transliteration, English, note]. Written for this project. +// Hebrew is written without vowel points; (m) and (f) mark masculine and feminine forms. +window.LSD_DECKS = window.LSD_DECKS || {}; +window.LSD_DECKS.hebrew = [ + { + id: "greetings", + title: "Greetings", + words: [ + ["שלום", "shalom", "hello; goodbye; peace", "The all-purpose greeting."], + ["בוקר טוב", "boker tov", "good morning", "Answer: בוקר אור, boker or."], + ["ערב טוב", "erev tov", "good evening", ""], + ["לילה טוב", "laila tov", "good night", ""], + ["תודה", "toda", "thank you", "תודה רבה: thank you very much."], + ["בבקשה", "bevakasha", "please; you're welcome", ""], + ["סליחה", "slicha", "sorry; excuse me", ""], + ["כן", "ken", "yes", ""], + ["לא", "lo", "no; not", ""], + ["מה נשמע?", "ma nishma?", "how's it going?", "Answer: בסדר, beseder, fine."], + ["מה שלומך?", "ma shlomcha / ma shlomech?", "how are you?", "שלומך is read shlomcha to a man and shlomech to a woman."], + ["בסדר", "beseder", "okay; fine", ""], + ["נעים מאוד", "na'im me'od", "pleased to meet you", ""], + ["קוראים לי…", "kor'im li…", "my name is…", "Literally “they call me…”."], + ["להתראות", "lehitra'ot", "see you; goodbye", ""], + ["ברוך הבא", "baruch haba", "welcome", "To a woman: ברוכה הבאה, brucha haba'a."], + ], + }, + { + id: "people", + title: "People", + words: [ + ["אני", "ani", "I", ""], + ["אתה", "ata", "you (m)", ""], + ["את", "at", "you (f)", ""], + ["הוא", "hu", "he", ""], + ["היא", "hi", "she", ""], + ["אנחנו", "anachnu", "we", ""], + ["הם", "hem", "they (m or mixed)", "הן, hen, for a group of women."], + ["איש", "ish", "man", "Plural אנשים, anashim, people."], + ["אישה", "isha", "woman; wife", "Plural נשים, nashim."], + ["ילד", "yeled", "boy; child", "ילדה, yalda, girl."], + ["חבר", "chaver", "friend (m); boyfriend", "חברה, chavera: friend (f); girlfriend."], + ["אמא", "ima", "mum", ""], + ["אבא", "aba", "dad", ""], + ["אח", "ach", "brother", ""], + ["אחות", "achot", "sister", ""], + ["משפחה", "mishpacha", "family", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "numbers", + title: "Numbers", + words: [ + ["אפס", "efes", "zero", ""], + ["אחת", "achat", "one", "Counting aloud uses the feminine forms; אחד, echad, with masculine nouns."], + ["שתיים", "shtayim", "two", "שניים, shnayim, with masculine nouns."], + ["שלוש", "shalosh", "three", ""], + ["ארבע", "arba", "four", ""], + ["חמש", "chamesh", "five", ""], + ["שש", "shesh", "six", ""], + ["שבע", "sheva", "seven", ""], + ["שמונה", "shmone", "eight", ""], + ["תשע", "tesha", "nine", ""], + ["עשר", "eser", "ten", ""], + ["עשרים", "esrim", "twenty", ""], + ["מאה", "me'a", "a hundred", ""], + ["אלף", "elef", "a thousand", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "food", + title: "Food and drink", + words: [ + ["מים", "mayim", "water", ""], + ["קפה", "kafe", "coffee", ""], + ["תה", "te", "tea", ""], + ["חלב", "chalav", "milk", ""], + ["לחם", "lechem", "bread", ""], + ["פיתה", "pita", "pita", ""], + ["ביצה", "beitsa", "egg", ""], + ["גבינה", "gvina", "cheese", ""], + ["עוף", "of", "chicken", ""], + ["דג", "dag", "fish", ""], + ["סלט", "salat", "salad", ""], + ["פירות", "perot", "fruit", "One fruit: פרי, pri."], + ["אוכל", "ochel", "food", ""], + ["ארוחת בוקר", "aruchat boker", "breakfast", ""], + ["החשבון, בבקשה", "ha-cheshbon, bevakasha", "the bill, please", ""], + ["טעים", "ta'im", "tasty", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "verbs", + title: "Everyday verbs", + words: [ + ["לאכול", "le'echol", "to eat", "Present: אוכל / אוכלת."], + ["לשתות", "lishtot", "to drink", "Present: שותה."], + ["ללכת", "lalechet", "to go; to walk", "Present: הולך / הולכת."], + ["לבוא", "lavo", "to come", "Present: בא / באה."], + ["לגור", "lagur", "to live (somewhere)", "Present: גר / גרה."], + ["לדבר", "ledaber", "to speak", "Present: מדבר / מדברת."], + ["לרצות", "lirtsot", "to want", "Present: רוצה."], + ["לאהוב", "le'ehov", "to love; to like", "Present: אוהב / אוהבת."], + ["לעבוד", "la'avod", "to work", "Present: עובד / עובדת."], + ["ללמוד", "lilmod", "to learn; to study", "Present: לומד / לומדת."], + ["לקרוא", "likro", "to read; to call", "Present: קורא / קוראת."], + ["לכתוב", "lichtov", "to write", "Present: כותב / כותבת."], + ["לראות", "lir'ot", "to see", "Present: רואה."], + ["לדעת", "lada'at", "to know", "Present: יודע / יודעת."], + ["להבין", "lehavin", "to understand", "Present: מבין / מבינה."], + ["לעשות", "la'asot", "to do; to make", "Present: עושה."], + ], + }, + { + id: "describing", + title: "Describing words", + words: [ + ["גדול", "gadol", "big", "Feminine גדולה."], + ["קטן", "katan", "small", "Feminine קטנה."], + ["טוב", "tov", "good", "Feminine טובה."], + ["רע", "ra", "bad", ""], + ["יפה", "yafe", "pretty; nice", "Same spelling for both genders; said yafa for feminine."], + ["חדש", "chadash", "new", ""], + ["ישן", "yashan", "old (thing)", "For people: זקן, zaken."], + ["חם", "cham", "hot", ""], + ["קר", "kar", "cold", ""], + ["זול", "zol", "cheap", ""], + ["יקר", "yakar", "expensive; dear", ""], + ["קל", "kal", "easy; light", ""], + ["קשה", "kashe", "hard; difficult", ""], + ["שמח", "sameach", "happy", ""], + ["עייף", "ayef", "tired", ""], + ["מהר", "maher", "quickly", "לאט, le'at: slowly."], + ], + }, + { + id: "places", + title: "Places", + words: [ + ["בית", "bayit", "house; home", "בבית: at home."], + ["עיר", "ir", "city", ""], + ["רחוב", "rechov", "street", ""], + ["חנות", "chanut", "shop", ""], + ["שוק", "shuk", "market", ""], + ["מסעדה", "mis'ada", "restaurant", ""], + ["בית ספר", "beit sefer", "school", "Literally “house of the book”."], + ["בית חולים", "beit cholim", "hospital", ""], + ["בית מרקחת", "beit merkachat", "pharmacy", ""], + ["תחנה", "tachana", "station; stop", ""], + ["ים", "yam", "sea", ""], + ["שירותים", "sherutim", "toilets", ""], + ["בנק", "bank", "bank", ""], + ["מלון", "malon", "hotel", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "questions", + title: "Questions", + words: [ + ["מה?", "ma?", "what?", ""], + ["מי?", "mi?", "who?", ""], + ["איפה?", "eifo?", "where?", ""], + ["לאן?", "le'an?", "where to?", ""], + ["מאיפה?", "me'eifo?", "where from?", ""], + ["מתי?", "matai?", "when?", ""], + ["למה?", "lama?", "why?", ""], + ["איך?", "eich?", "how?", ""], + ["כמה?", "kama?", "how much? how many?", "כמה זה עולה? How much does it cost?"], + ["איזה?", "eize?", "which?", "Feminine איזו, eizo."], + ["יש…?", "yesh…?", "is there…? do you have…?", ""], + ["אפשר…?", "efshar…?", "may I…? is it possible…?", "אפשר מים? Could I have some water?"], + ], + }, + { + id: "time", + title: "Time and days", + words: [ + ["היום", "hayom", "today", ""], + ["מחר", "machar", "tomorrow", ""], + ["אתמול", "etmol", "yesterday", ""], + ["עכשיו", "achshav", "now", ""], + ["אחר כך", "achar kach", "later; afterwards", ""], + ["שעה", "sha'a", "hour", "מה השעה? What time is it?"], + ["יום", "yom", "day", ""], + ["שבוע", "shavua", "week", "שבוע טוב: have a good week (said on Saturday night)."], + ["שנה", "shana", "year", ""], + ["יום ראשון", "yom rishon", "Sunday", "The first working day of the Israeli week."], + ["יום שישי", "yom shishi", "Friday", ""], + ["שבת", "shabat", "Saturday; the Sabbath", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "travel", + title: "Getting around", + words: [ + ["אוטובוס", "otobus", "bus", ""], + ["רכבת", "rakevet", "train", ""], + ["מונית", "monit", "taxi", ""], + ["מכונית", "mechonit", "car", "In speech also אוטו, oto."], + ["כרטיס", "kartis", "ticket", ""], + ["דרכון", "darkon", "passport", ""], + ["ימינה", "yamina", "to the right", ""], + ["שמאלה", "smola", "to the left", ""], + ["ישר", "yashar", "straight on", ""], + ["קרוב", "karov", "near", ""], + ["רחוק", "rachok", "far", ""], + ["מפה", "mapa", "map", ""], + ["עזרה!", "ezra!", "help!", ""], + ["אני לא מבין", "ani lo mevin", "I don't understand", "A woman says מבינה, mevina."], + ], + }, +]; diff --git a/languages/reference.js b/languages/reference.js index 00a61703..fe7875dc 100644 --- a/languages/reference.js +++ b/languages/reference.js @@ -689,525 +689,1821 @@ window.LSD_REFERENCE = { } ] }, - "chinese": { - "id": "chinese", + "armenian": { + "id": "armenian", "entries": [ { "id": "at-a-glance", "topic": "overview", - "title": "Mandarin at a glance", + "title": "Armenian at a glance", "body": [ - "Mandarin Chinese has almost no inflection: verbs don't change for person or tense, and nouns don't change for number. Meaning comes from word order, small particles and context.", - "It is tonal: the pitch contour of a syllable is part of the word. The basic order is subject, verb, object, with time and place before the verb.", - "Pinyin is the official romanization, used for teaching and for typing characters." + "Armenian forms its own branch of the Indo-European family. It has two standard forms: Eastern Armenian, spoken in Armenia and Iran, which these cards follow, and Western Armenian, spoken mostly in the diaspora.", + "There is no grammatical gender. “The” is an ending (-ը or -ն), nouns take case endings instead of prepositions, and most verb tenses are a participle plus a helper verb: գրում եմ, “I write”." ], "examples": [ { - "t": "我喝茶。", - "r": "Wǒ hē chá.", - "e": "I drink tea. / I drank tea." - }, - { - "t": "他们喝茶。", - "r": "Tāmen hē chá.", - "e": "They drink tea. (the verb stays the same)" + "t": "Ես հայերեն եմ {սովորում}։", + "r": "Yes hayeren em sovorum.", + "e": "I am learning Armenian." } ], "tags": [ - "SVO", - "tones", - "pinyin" + "Indo-European", + "Eastern Armenian", + "no gender" ] }, { - "id": "tones", - "topic": "sounds", - "title": "The four tones", - "body": "Each syllable has one of four tones, or a light neutral tone. The same syllable with a different tone is a different word.", + "id": "alphabet", + "topic": "script", + "title": "The alphabet", + "body": [ + "The Armenian alphabet was created by Mesrop Mashtots around 405 AD with 36 letters; two more, Օ and Ֆ, were added later. Each letter has a capital and a small form.", + "The sound ու (u) is written with two letters, and և (yev, “and”) is a ligature of ե and ւ." + ], "table": { "head": [ - "Tone", - "Contour", - "Example" + "Letter", + "Sound", + "Letter", + "Sound" ], "rows": [ [ - "1st · ā", - "high and level", - "妈 mā · mother" + "Ա ա", + "a", + "Բ բ", + "b" ], [ - "2nd · á", - "rising, as in a question: what?", - "麻 má · hemp" + "Գ գ", + "g", + "Դ դ", + "d" ], [ - "3rd · ǎ", - "low, dipping (often just low)", - "马 mǎ · horse" + "Ե ե", + "ye / e", + "Զ զ", + "z" ], [ - "4th · à", - "sharply falling, as in a command", - "骂 mà · to scold" + "Է է", + "e", + "Ը ը", + "ë (uh)" ], [ - "neutral · a", - "short and light", - "吗 ma · question particle" + "Թ թ", + "t'", + "Ժ ժ", + "zh" + ], + [ + "Ի ի", + "i", + "Լ լ", + "l" + ], + [ + "Խ խ", + "kh", + "Ծ ծ", + "ts" + ], + [ + "Կ կ", + "k", + "Հ հ", + "h" + ], + [ + "Ձ ձ", + "dz", + "Ղ ղ", + "gh" + ], + [ + "Ճ ճ", + "ch", + "Մ մ", + "m" + ], + [ + "Յ յ", + "y", + "Ն ն", + "n" + ], + [ + "Շ շ", + "sh", + "Ո ո", + "vo / o" + ], + [ + "Չ չ", + "ch'", + "Պ պ", + "p" + ], + [ + "Ջ ջ", + "j", + "Ռ ռ", + "r (rolled)" + ], + [ + "Ս ս", + "s", + "Վ վ", + "v" + ], + [ + "Տ տ", + "t", + "Ր ր", + "r" + ], + [ + "Ց ց", + "ts'", + "Ւ ւ", + "v (in ու)" + ], + [ + "Փ փ", + "p'", + "Ք ք", + "k'" + ], + [ + "Օ օ", + "o", + "Ֆ ֆ", + "f" ] ] }, - "examples": [ - { - "t": "妈妈骂马吗？", - "r": "Māma mà mǎ ma?", - "e": "Is mum scolding the horse?" - } - ], "tags": [ - "pronunciation", - "tones" + "script", + "letters", + "Mashtots" ] }, { - "id": "tone-sandhi", + "id": "consonants", "topic": "sounds", - "title": "Tone changes", - "body": "A few tones change in context. Pinyin is usually written with the original tone, so learn the rule rather than the spelling.", + "title": "Three kinds of consonant", + "body": "Like Georgian, Armenian has three versions of many stops. Plain ones (կ, պ, տ) have no puff of air and can sound almost like g, b, d to English ears. Aspirated ones (ք, փ, թ, marked with an apostrophe here) have a strong puff. Voiced ones are like English b, d, g.", "table": { "head": [ - "Rule", - "Example" + "Voiced", + "Plain", + "Aspirated" ], "rows": [ [ - "3rd + 3rd → 2nd + 3rd", - "你好 nǐ hǎo is said ní hǎo" + "բ b", + "պ p", + "փ p'" ], [ - "不 bù → bú before a 4th tone", - "不是 bú shì · is not" + "դ d", + "տ t", + "թ t'" ], [ - "一 yī → yí before a 4th tone", - "一个 yí ge · one (of something)" + "գ g", + "կ k", + "ք k'" ], [ - "一 yī → yì before tones 1, 2, 3", - "一天 yì tiān · one day" + "ձ dz", + "ծ ts", + "ց ts'" + ], + [ + "ջ j", + "ճ ch", + "չ ch'" ] ] }, "tags": [ "pronunciation", - "tones", - "sandhi" + "consonants" ] }, { - "id": "pinyin-traps", - "topic": "sounds", - "title": "Pinyin letters that fool English speakers", + "id": "punctuation", + "topic": "script", + "title": "Punctuation", + "body": "Armenian marks are placed inside the word. The question mark ՞ and the exclamation mark ՜ sit over the stressed vowel of the word being asked or exclaimed. The full stop is ։ (verjaket), the comma is the same as in English, and ՝ (called but) marks a short pause.", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "Որտե՞ղ ես։", + "r": "Vortegh es?", + "e": "Where are you?" + }, + { + "t": "Ի՜նչ գեղեցիկ է։", + "r": "Inch geghets'ik e!", + "e": "How beautiful it is!" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "punctuation" + ] + }, + { + "id": "to-be", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "The helper verb “to be”", + "body": "These forms mean “am, is, are” on their own, and they also build the present and other tenses. The negative adds չ-; for “is not” the form is չի.", "table": { "head": [ - "Pinyin", - "Sounds like", - "Example" + "", + "Positive", + "Negative" ], "rows": [ [ - "q", - "ch in cheese, tongue flat", - "七 qī · seven" + "I", + "եմ em", + "չեմ chem" ], [ - "x", - "sh in sheep, tongue flat", - "谢 xiè · thank" + "you", + "ես es", + "չես ches" ], [ - "j", - "j in jeep, tongue flat", - "家 jiā · home" + "he, she", + "է e", + "չի chi" ], [ - "zh · ch · sh", - "j, ch, sh with the tongue curled back", - "中 zhōng · 吃 chī · 是 shì" + "we", + "ենք enk'", + "չենք chenk'" ], [ - "c", - "ts in cats", - "菜 cài · dish" + "you (pl.)", + "եք ek'", + "չեք chek'" ], [ - "z", - "ds in reads", - "在 zài · at" + "they", + "են en", + "չեն chen" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "verbs", + "to be", + "negation" + ] + }, + { + "id": "present", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "The present tense", + "body": "Replace the infinitive's -ել or -ալ with -ում and add the helper. In a negative sentence the negative helper comes first: չեմ գրում, “I don't write”.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Infinitive", + "Present (I)", + "Meaning" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "գրել", + "գրում եմ", + "I write" ], [ - "r", - "between English r and the s in measure", - "人 rén · person" + "խոսել", + "խոսում եմ", + "I speak" ], [ - "ü (u after j q x y)", - "ee said with rounded lips", - "去 qù · go; 绿 lǜ · green" + "կարդալ", + "կարդում եմ", + "I read" ], [ - "-i after z c s zh ch sh r", - "a buzzing continuation of the consonant, not ee", - "四 sì · 十 shí" + "ապրել", + "ապրում եմ", + "I live" + ], + [ + "գալ", + "գալիս եմ", + "I come (irregular)" ] ] }, "tags": [ - "pronunciation", - "pinyin" + "verbs", + "present" ] }, { - "id": "simplified-traditional", - "topic": "script", - "title": "Simplified and Traditional characters", - "body": "Mainland China and Singapore use {Simplified} characters, introduced in the 1950s and 60s. Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau use {Traditional} characters. About a third of common characters differ; many, like 人 and 大, are the same in both.", + "id": "cases", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "Main cases", + "body": "Nouns take endings for their role. These are the forms of քաղաք (city).", "table": { "head": [ - "Simplified", - "Traditional", + "Case", + "Ending", + "Example", "Meaning" ], "rows": [ [ - "门", - "門", - "door" - ], - [ - "马", - "馬", - "horse" + "Nominative", + "–", + "քաղաք", + "a city" ], [ - "语", - "語", - "language" + "Genitive / dative", + "-ի", + "քաղաքի", + "of / to a city" ], [ - "学", - "學", - "study" + "Ablative", + "-ից", + "քաղաքից", + "from a city" ], [ - "国", - "國", - "country" + "Instrumental", + "-ով", + "քաղաքով", + "by, through a city" ], [ - "东", - "東", - "east" + "Locative", + "-ում", + "քաղաքում", + "in a city" ] ] }, "tags": [ - "characters", - "hanzi" + "cases" ] }, { - "id": "radicals", - "topic": "script", - "title": "Radicals", - "body": "Most characters combine a meaning part (the radical) and a sound hint. Spotting the radical gives you a clue to meaning and is how paper dictionaries are ordered.", + "id": "numbers", + "topic": "numbers", + "title": "Numbers", "table": { "head": [ - "Radical", - "Meaning", - "Examples" + "", + "Armenian", + "Romanization" ], "rows": [ [ - "氵", - "water", - "河 river · 海 sea · 洗 wash" + "1", + "մեկ", + "mek" ], [ - "木", - "tree, wood", - "林 grove · 森 forest · 桌 table" + "2", + "երկու", + "yerku" ], [ - "口", - "mouth", - "吃 eat · 喝 drink · 叫 call" + "3", + "երեք", + "yerek'" ], [ - "亻", - "person", - "你 you · 他 he · 休 rest" + "4", + "չորս", + "ch'ors" ], [ - "讠", - "speech", - "说 speak · 话 words · 语 language" + "5", + "հինգ", + "hing" ], [ - "女", - "woman", - "妈 mother · 姐 elder sister · 好 good" - ] - ] - }, - "tags": [ - "characters", - "radicals" - ] - }, - { - "id": "word-order", - "topic": "grammar", - "title": "Word order: time and place first", - "body": "The order is subject, time, place, verb, object. Time words can also go before the subject. Unlike English, when and where never come at the end.", - "examples": [ - { - "t": "我{明天}{在家}学习。", - "r": "Wǒ míngtiān zài jiā xuéxí.", - "e": "I will study at home tomorrow." - }, - { - "t": "{昨天}我{在商店}买了一本书。", - "r": "Zuótiān wǒ zài shāngdiàn mǎi le yì běn shū.", - "e": "Yesterday I bought a book at the shop." - } - ], - "tags": [ - "word order" - ] - }, - { - "id": "measure-words", - "topic": "grammar", - "title": "Measure words", - "body": "A number or 这 / 那 (this / that) can't go straight before a noun; a measure word goes between. 个 gè is the general one. Use 两 liǎng, not 二 èr, for two of something.", - "table": { - "head": [ - "Measure", - "Used for", - "Example" - ], - "rows": [ + "6", + "վեց", + "vets'" + ], [ - "个 gè", - "people, most things", - "一个人 · a person" + "7", + "յոթ", + "yot'" ], [ - "本 běn", - "books", - "一本书 · a book" + "8", + "ութ", + "ut'" ], [ - "张 zhāng", - "flat things: paper, tables, tickets", - "两张纸 · two sheets of paper" + "9", + "ինը", + "inë" ], [ - "只 zhī", - "animals, one of a pair", - "三只猫 · three cats" + "10", + "տասը", + "tasë" ], [ - "杯 bēi", - "cups of", - "一杯茶 · a cup of tea" + "20", + "քսան", + "k'san" ], [ - "条 tiáo", - "long, winding things", - "一条河 · a river" + "100", + "հարյուր", + "haryur" + ], + [ + "1000", + "հազար", + "hazar" ] ] }, + "body": "Eleven to nineteen are ten plus the unit: տասնմեկ (11), տասներկու (12). A noun after a number usually stays singular.", "tags": [ - "measure words", - "classifiers" + "numbers" ] }, { - "id": "aspect", - "topic": "verbs", - "title": "了, 过 and 在", - "body": "Chinese marks aspect, not tense. 了 le shows that an action is completed or a situation has changed. 过 guo means have ever done. 在 zài before a verb means in the middle of doing.", + "id": "phrases", + "topic": "phrases", + "title": "Everyday phrases", "examples": [ { - "t": "我吃{了}。", - "r": "Wǒ chī le.", - "e": "I've eaten." - }, - { - "t": "下雨{了}。", - "r": "Xià yǔ le.", - "e": "It's started raining. (a change)" + "t": "Բարև Ձեզ։", + "r": "Barev dzez.", + "e": "Hello. (polite)" }, { - "t": "我去{过}中国。", - "r": "Wǒ qù guo Zhōngguó.", - "e": "I have been to China." + "t": "Շնորհակալություն։", + "r": "Shnorhakalut'yun.", + "e": "Thank you." }, { - "t": "他{在}看书。", - "r": "Tā zài kàn shū.", - "e": "He is reading." - } - ], - "tags": [ - "aspect", - "verbs" - ] - }, - { - "id": "negation", - "topic": "grammar", - "title": "不 and 没", - "body": "{不} bù negates the present, the future, habits and adjectives. {没} méi negates the past and is the only way to negate 有 (have).", - "examples": [ - { - "t": "我{不}去。", - "r": "Wǒ bú qù.", - "e": "I'm not going. / I won't go." + "t": "Ներեցեք, չեմ հասկանում։", + "r": "Neretsek', chem haskanum.", + "e": "Excuse me, I don't understand." }, { - "t": "我{没}去。", - "r": "Wǒ méi qù.", - "e": "I didn't go." + "t": "Անգլերեն խոսու՞մ եք։", + "r": "Angleren khosum ek'?", + "e": "Do you speak English?" }, { - "t": "我{没}有钱。", - "r": "Wǒ méiyǒu qián.", - "e": "I don't have any money." + "t": "Ինչքա՞ն արժե։", + "r": "Inchk'an arzhe?", + "e": "How much does it cost?" }, { - "t": "今天{不}冷。", - "r": "Jīntiān bù lěng.", - "e": "It isn't cold today." + "t": "Կենացդ։", + "r": "Kenats'd!", + "e": "Cheers! (to your life)" } ], "tags": [ - "negation" + "phrases", + "travel" ] }, { - "id": "questions", - "topic": "grammar", - "title": "Questions", - "body": "Add 吗 ma to a statement, or repeat the verb with 不 in between (A-not-A). Question words stay where the answer would go; there is no moving them to the front.", - "examples": [ - { - "t": "你是学生{吗}？", - "r": "Nǐ shì xuésheng ma?", - "e": "Are you a student?" - }, - { - "t": "你{是不是}学生？", - "r": "Nǐ shì bu shì xuésheng?", - "e": "Are you a student or not?" - }, - { - "t": "你叫{什么}名字？", - "r": "Nǐ jiào shénme míngzi?", - "e": "What is your name?" - }, - { - "t": "厕所在{哪儿}？", - "r": "Cèsuǒ zài nǎr?", - "e": "Where is the toilet?" - } - ], + "id": "ararat", + "topic": "culture", + "title": "Ararat and the apricot", + "body": "Mount Ararat, visible from Yerevan across the Turkish border, is the national symbol of Armenia and appears on its coat of arms. The apricot (ծիրան) is thought of as the national fruit, and its colour is in the flag: red, blue and apricot-orange.", "tags": [ - "questions" + "culture", + "symbols" ] - }, + } + ] + }, + "chinese": { + "id": "chinese", + "entries": [ { - "id": "de", - "topic": "grammar", - "title": "The linking particle 的", - "body": "的 de joins a describing word or phrase to the noun after it. It marks possession, and it turns whole clauses into descriptions; the description always comes before the noun.", + "id": "at-a-glance", + "topic": "overview", + "title": "Mandarin at a glance", + "body": [ + "Mandarin Chinese has almost no inflection: verbs don't change for person or tense, and nouns don't change for number. Meaning comes from word order, small particles and context.", + "It is tonal: the pitch contour of a syllable is part of the word. The basic order is subject, verb, object, with time and place before the verb.", + "Pinyin is the official romanization, used for teaching and for typing characters." + ], "examples": [ { - "t": "我{的}书", - "r": "wǒ de shū", - "e": "my book" - }, - { - "t": "红色{的}车", - "r": "hóngsè de chē", - "e": "a red car" + "t": "我喝茶。", + "r": "Wǒ hē chá.", + "e": "I drink tea. / I drank tea." }, { - "t": "我昨天买{的}书", - "r": "wǒ zuótiān mǎi de shū", - "e": "the book I bought yesterday" + "t": "他们喝茶。", + "r": "Tāmen hē chá.", + "e": "They drink tea. (the verb stays the same)" } ], "tags": [ - "particles", - "possession" + "SVO", + "tones", + "pinyin" ] }, { - "id": "numbers", - "topic": "numbers", - "title": "Numbers", - "body": "一 yī, 二 èr, 三 sān, 四 sì, 五 wǔ, 六 liù, 七 qī, 八 bā, 九 jiǔ, 十 shí. Larger numbers are perfectly regular: 十一 is 11, 二十 is 20, 九十九 is 99. Big numbers group by ten thousands (万 wàn), not thousands.", + "id": "tones", + "topic": "sounds", + "title": "The four tones", + "body": "Each syllable has one of four tones, or a light neutral tone. The same syllable with a different tone is a different word.", "table": { "head": [ - "Number", - "Characters", - "Pinyin" + "Tone", + "Contour", + "Example" ], "rows": [ [ - "11", - "十一", - "shíyī" - ], - [ - "20", - "二十", - "èrshí" - ], - [ - "100", - "一百", - "yìbǎi" + "1st · ā", + "high and level", + "妈 mā · mother" ], [ - "1,000", - "一千", - "yìqiān" + "2nd · á", + "rising, as in a question: what?", + "麻 má · hemp" ], [ - "10,000", - "一万", - "yíwàn" + "3rd · ǎ", + "low, dipping (often just low)", + "马 mǎ · horse" ], [ - "100,000", - "十万", - "shíwàn" + "4th · à", + "sharply falling, as in a command", + "骂 mà · to scold" ], [ - "1,000,000", - "一百万", - "yìbǎiwàn" + "neutral · a", + "short and light", + "吗 ma · question particle" ] ] }, + "examples": [ + { + "t": "妈妈骂马吗？", + "r": "Māma mà mǎ ma?", + "e": "Is mum scolding the horse?" + } + ], "tags": [ - "numbers" + "pronunciation", + "tones" + ] + }, + { + "id": "tone-sandhi", + "topic": "sounds", + "title": "Tone changes", + "body": "A few tones change in context. Pinyin is usually written with the original tone, so learn the rule rather than the spelling.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Rule", + "Example" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "3rd + 3rd → 2nd + 3rd", + "你好 nǐ hǎo is said ní hǎo" + ], + [ + "不 bù → bú before a 4th tone", + "不是 bú shì · is not" + ], + [ + "一 yī → yí before a 4th tone", + "一个 yí ge · one (of something)" + ], + [ + "一 yī → yì before tones 1, 2, 3", + "一天 yì tiān · one day" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "pronunciation", + "tones", + "sandhi" + ] + }, + { + "id": "pinyin-traps", + "topic": "sounds", + "title": "Pinyin letters that fool English speakers", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Pinyin", + "Sounds like", + "Example" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "q", + "ch in cheese, tongue flat", + "七 qī · seven" + ], + [ + "x", + "sh in sheep, tongue flat", + "谢 xiè · thank" + ], + [ + "j", + "j in jeep, tongue flat", + "家 jiā · home" + ], + [ + "zh · ch · sh", + "j, ch, sh with the tongue curled back", + "中 zhōng · 吃 chī · 是 shì" + ], + [ + "c", + "ts in cats", + "菜 cài · dish" + ], + [ + "z", + "ds in reads", + "在 zài · at" + ], + [ + "r", + "between English r and the s in measure", + "人 rén · person" + ], + [ + "ü (u after j q x y)", + "ee said with rounded lips", + "去 qù · go; 绿 lǜ · green" + ], + [ + "-i after z c s zh ch sh r", + "a buzzing continuation of the consonant, not ee", + "四 sì · 十 shí" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "pronunciation", + "pinyin" + ] + }, + { + "id": "simplified-traditional", + "topic": "script", + "title": "Simplified and Traditional characters", + "body": "Mainland China and Singapore use {Simplified} characters, introduced in the 1950s and 60s. Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau use {Traditional} characters. About a third of common characters differ; many, like 人 and 大, are the same in both.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Simplified", + "Traditional", + "Meaning" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "门", + "門", + "door" + ], + [ + "马", + "馬", + "horse" + ], + [ + "语", + "語", + "language" + ], + [ + "学", + "學", + "study" + ], + [ + "国", + "國", + "country" + ], + [ + "东", + "東", + "east" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "characters", + "hanzi" + ] + }, + { + "id": "radicals", + "topic": "script", + "title": "Radicals", + "body": "Most characters combine a meaning part (the radical) and a sound hint. Spotting the radical gives you a clue to meaning and is how paper dictionaries are ordered.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Radical", + "Meaning", + "Examples" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "氵", + "water", + "河 river · 海 sea · 洗 wash" + ], + [ + "木", + "tree, wood", + "林 grove · 森 forest · 桌 table" + ], + [ + "口", + "mouth", + "吃 eat · 喝 drink · 叫 call" + ], + [ + "亻", + "person", + "你 you · 他 he · 休 rest" + ], + [ + "讠", + "speech", + "说 speak · 话 words · 语 language" + ], + [ + "女", + "woman", + "妈 mother · 姐 elder sister · 好 good" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "characters", + "radicals" + ] + }, + { + "id": "word-order", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "Word order: time and place first", + "body": "The order is subject, time, place, verb, object. Time words can also go before the subject. Unlike English, when and where never come at the end.", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "我{明天}{在家}学习。", + "r": "Wǒ míngtiān zài jiā xuéxí.", + "e": "I will study at home tomorrow." + }, + { + "t": "{昨天}我{在商店}买了一本书。", + "r": "Zuótiān wǒ zài shāngdiàn mǎi le yì běn shū.", + "e": "Yesterday I bought a book at the shop." + } + ], + "tags": [ + "word order" + ] + }, + { + "id": "measure-words", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "Measure words", + "body": "A number or 这 / 那 (this / that) can't go straight before a noun; a measure word goes between. 个 gè is the general one. Use 两 liǎng, not 二 èr, for two of something.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Measure", + "Used for", + "Example" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "个 gè", + "people, most things", + "一个人 · a person" + ], + [ + "本 běn", + "books", + "一本书 · a book" + ], + [ + "张 zhāng", + "flat things: paper, tables, tickets", + "两张纸 · two sheets of paper" + ], + [ + "只 zhī", + "animals, one of a pair", + "三只猫 · three cats" + ], + [ + "杯 bēi", + "cups of", + "一杯茶 · a cup of tea" + ], + [ + "条 tiáo", + "long, winding things", + "一条河 · a river" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "measure words", + "classifiers" + ] + }, + { + "id": "aspect", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "了, 过 and 在", + "body": "Chinese marks aspect, not tense. 了 le shows that an action is completed or a situation has changed. 过 guo means have ever done. 在 zài before a verb means in the middle of doing.", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "我吃{了}。", + "r": "Wǒ chī le.", + "e": "I've eaten." + }, + { + "t": "下雨{了}。", + "r": "Xià yǔ le.", + "e": "It's started raining. (a change)" + }, + { + "t": "我去{过}中国。", + "r": "Wǒ qù guo Zhōngguó.", + "e": "I have been to China." + }, + { + "t": "他{在}看书。", + "r": "Tā zài kàn shū.", + "e": "He is reading." + } + ], + "tags": [ + "aspect", + "verbs" + ] + }, + { + "id": "negation", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "不 and 没", + "body": "{不} bù negates the present, the future, habits and adjectives. {没} méi negates the past and is the only way to negate 有 (have).", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "我{不}去。", + "r": "Wǒ bú qù.", + "e": "I'm not going. / I won't go." + }, + { + "t": "我{没}去。", + "r": "Wǒ méi qù.", + "e": "I didn't go." + }, + { + "t": "我{没}有钱。", + "r": "Wǒ méiyǒu qián.", + "e": "I don't have any money." + }, + { + "t": "今天{不}冷。", + "r": "Jīntiān bù lěng.", + "e": "It isn't cold today." + } + ], + "tags": [ + "negation" + ] + }, + { + "id": "questions", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "Questions", + "body": "Add 吗 ma to a statement, or repeat the verb with 不 in between (A-not-A). Question words stay where the answer would go; there is no moving them to the front.", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "你是学生{吗}？", + "r": "Nǐ shì xuésheng ma?", + "e": "Are you a student?" + }, + { + "t": "你{是不是}学生？", + "r": "Nǐ shì bu shì xuésheng?", + "e": "Are you a student or not?" + }, + { + "t": "你叫{什么}名字？", + "r": "Nǐ jiào shénme míngzi?", + "e": "What is your name?" + }, + { + "t": "厕所在{哪儿}？", + "r": "Cèsuǒ zài nǎr?", + "e": "Where is the toilet?" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "questions" + ] + }, + { + "id": "de", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "The linking particle 的", + "body": "的 de joins a describing word or phrase to the noun after it. It marks possession, and it turns whole clauses into descriptions; the description always comes before the noun.", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "我{的}书", + "r": "wǒ de shū", + "e": "my book" + }, + { + "t": "红色{的}车", + "r": "hóngsè de chē", + "e": "a red car" + }, + { + "t": "我昨天买{的}书", + "r": "wǒ zuótiān mǎi de shū", + "e": "the book I bought yesterday" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "particles", + "possession" + ] + }, + { + "id": "numbers", + "topic": "numbers", + "title": "Numbers", + "body": "一 yī, 二 èr, 三 sān, 四 sì, 五 wǔ, 六 liù, 七 qī, 八 bā, 九 jiǔ, 十 shí. Larger numbers are perfectly regular: 十一 is 11, 二十 is 20, 九十九 is 99. Big numbers group by ten thousands (万 wàn), not thousands.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Number", + "Characters", + "Pinyin" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "11", + "十一", + "shíyī" + ], + [ + "20", + "二十", + "èrshí" + ], + [ + "100", + "一百", + "yìbǎi" + ], + [ + "1,000", + "一千", + "yìqiān" + ], + [ + "10,000", + "一万", + "yíwàn" + ], + [ + "100,000", + "十万", + "shíwàn" + ], + [ + "1,000,000", + "一百万", + "yìbǎiwàn" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "numbers" + ] + }, + { + "id": "phrases", + "topic": "phrases", + "title": "Everyday phrases", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "你好", + "r": "nǐ hǎo", + "e": "Hello." + }, + { + "t": "谢谢", + "r": "xièxie", + "e": "Thank you." + }, + { + "t": "不客气", + "r": "bú kèqi", + "e": "You're welcome." + }, + { + "t": "对不起", + "r": "duìbuqǐ", + "e": "Sorry." + }, + { + "t": "没关系", + "r": "méi guānxi", + "e": "It doesn't matter. No problem." + }, + { + "t": "请问", + "r": "qǐngwèn", + "e": "Excuse me, may I ask…" + }, + { + "t": "我听不懂", + "r": "wǒ tīng bu dǒng", + "e": "I don't understand (what I hear)." + }, + { + "t": "再见", + "r": "zàijiàn", + "e": "Goodbye." + } + ], + "tags": [ + "greetings" + ] + }, + { + "id": "shared-characters", + "topic": "culture", + "title": "Characters shared with Japanese and Korean", + "body": "Japanese kanji and Korean hanja came from Chinese characters, so many words can be read across all three with different pronunciations. Japan simplified some characters its own way after 1946, so a kanji may match the Simplified form (学), the Traditional one (東), or neither (売, Simplified 卖, Traditional 賣). Hanja are Traditional.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Chinese", + "Japanese", + "Korean (hanja)", + "Meaning" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "学 xué", + "学 gaku", + "學 hak", + "study" + ], + [ + "国 guó", + "国 koku", + "國 guk", + "country" + ], + [ + "山 shān", + "山 san · yama", + "山 san", + "mountain" + ], + [ + "大学 dàxué", + "大学 daigaku", + "大學 daehak", + "university" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "characters", + "kanji", + "hanja" + ] + }, + { + "id": "bi", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "Comparisons with 比", + "body": "A 比 B + adjective: A is more … than B. Don't add 很 before the adjective. Add 一点儿 (a bit) or 得多 (much) after it to say how much.", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "他{比}我高。", + "r": "Tā bǐ wǒ gāo.", + "e": "He is taller than me." + }, + { + "t": "今天{比}昨天冷{一点儿}。", + "r": "Jīntiān bǐ zuótiān lěng yìdiǎnr.", + "e": "Today is a bit colder than yesterday." + }, + { + "t": "我{没有}他{那么}高。", + "r": "Wǒ méiyǒu tā nàme gāo.", + "e": "I'm not as tall as him." + } + ], + "tags": [ + "comparison" + ] + }, + { + "id": "ba", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "The 把 construction", + "body": "把 moves the object in front of the verb, to say what is done to a specific thing and where it ends up. The verb must be followed by something: a result, a place or 了.", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "我{把}书放在桌子上。", + "r": "Wǒ bǎ shū fàng zài zhuōzi shang.", + "e": "I put the book on the table." + }, + { + "t": "请{把}门关上。", + "r": "Qǐng bǎ mén guānshang.", + "e": "Please close the door." + }, + { + "t": "他{把}饭吃完了。", + "r": "Tā bǎ fàn chīwán le.", + "e": "He finished (eating) the meal." + } + ], + "tags": [ + "word order", + "ba" + ] + }, + { + "id": "shi-de", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "是…的: when, where, how it happened", + "body": "To ask or tell when, where, how or with whom a known past event happened, wrap the detail in 是 … 的. 是 is often dropped in speech.", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "你{是}什么时候来{的}？", + "r": "Nǐ shì shénme shíhou lái de?", + "e": "When did you come?" + }, + { + "t": "我{是}坐飞机来{的}。", + "r": "Wǒ shì zuò fēijī lái de.", + "e": "I came by plane." + } + ], + "tags": [ + "past", + "focus" + ] + }, + { + "id": "resultatives", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "Result complements", + "body": "A second verb or adjective right after the main verb says what the action achieved. Put 不 between them for can't, 得 for can.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Compound", + "Meaning", + "Can't" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "看懂 kàndǒng", + "read and understand", + "看不懂 · can't make sense of it" + ], + [ + "听见 tīngjiàn", + "hear (succeed in hearing)", + "听不见 · can't hear" + ], + [ + "做完 zuòwán", + "finish doing", + "做不完 · can't finish" + ], + [ + "找到 zhǎodào", + "find", + "找不到 · can't find" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "verbs", + "complements" + ] + } + ] + }, + "cyrillic": { + "id": "cyrillic", + "entries": [ + { + "id": "at-a-glance", + "topic": "overview", + "title": "Russian at a glance", + "body": [ + "Russian is an East Slavic language written in Cyrillic. Nouns, adjectives and pronouns change for six cases, and there are three genders. There are no articles, and no word for is in the present tense.", + "Because endings show who does what, word order is flexible and is used for emphasis: the new or important information usually comes last.", + "Verbs come in pairs of imperfective and perfective aspect, which matters more than tense." + ], + "examples": [ + { + "t": "Я студент.", + "r": "Ya student.", + "e": "I am a student." + }, + { + "t": "Маша читает книгу.", + "r": "Masha chitayet knigu.", + "e": "Masha is reading a book." + } + ], + "tags": [ + "Slavic", + "cases", + "aspect" + ] + }, + { + "id": "false-friends", + "topic": "script", + "title": "Letters that look Latin but aren't", + "body": "Several Cyrillic letters look like Latin ones with a different sound. These cause the most mistakes at the start.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Letter", + "Sound", + "Example" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "В в", + "v", + "вода · voda · water" + ], + [ + "Н н", + "n", + "нет · net · no" + ], + [ + "Р р", + "r (rolled)", + "река · reka · river" + ], + [ + "С с", + "s", + "сок · sok · juice" + ], + [ + "У у", + "u", + "утро · utro · morning" + ], + [ + "Х х", + "kh, as in loch", + "хлеб · khleb · bread" + ], + [ + "Е е", + "ye", + "есть · yest' · to eat; there is" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "script", + "alphabet" + ] + }, + { + "id": "vowel-pairs", + "topic": "script", + "title": "Vowel pairs and the two signs", + "body": [ + "Each vowel has a hard and a soft partner. The soft vowels make the consonant before them soft (palatalized), and at the start of a word they add a y sound.", + "Two letters have no sound of their own: {ь} (the soft sign) softens the consonant before it, and {ъ} (the hard sign) keeps a consonant hard before a soft vowel." + ], + "table": { + "head": [ + "Hard", + "Soft", + "Example" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "а · a", + "я · ya", + "мясо · myaso · meat" + ], + [ + "э · e", + "е · ye", + "лето · leto · summer" + ], + [ + "ы · y", + "и · i", + "быть · byt' · to be; бить · bit' · to hit" + ], + [ + "о · o", + "ё · yo", + "ёж · yozh · hedgehog" + ], + [ + "у · u", + "ю · yu", + "юг · yug · south" + ] + ] + }, + "examples": [ + { + "t": "мат · мат{ь}", + "r": "mat · mat'", + "e": "checkmate · mother" + }, + { + "t": "под{ъ}езд", + "r": "pod'yezd", + "e": "entrance (of a building)" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "script", + "vowels", + "soft sign" + ] + }, + { + "id": "stress-reduction", + "topic": "sounds", + "title": "Stress and vowel reduction", + "body": [ + "Stress can fall on any syllable and has to be learned with each word. Only the stressed vowel is said fully: an unstressed о sounds like a, and unstressed е and я sound close to i. Textbooks mark stress with an accent; normal text does not.", + "{ё} is always stressed, but it is often printed as е." + ], + "examples": [ + { + "t": "молоко́", + "r": "malakó", + "e": "milk: two unstressed о said as a" + }, + { + "t": "хорошо́", + "r": "kharashó", + "e": "good, well" + }, + { + "t": "за́мок · замо́к", + "r": "zámak · zamók", + "e": "castle · lock" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "pronunciation", + "stress" + ] + }, + { + "id": "devoicing", + "topic": "sounds", + "title": "Final devoicing", + "body": "At the end of a word, and before a voiceless consonant, voiced consonants lose their voice: б → p, в → f, г → k, д → t, ж → sh, з → s.", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "хлеб", + "r": "khlep", + "e": "bread" + }, + { + "t": "го́род", + "r": "górat", + "e": "city" + }, + { + "t": "в{т}о́рник", + "r": "ftórnik", + "e": "Tuesday (в before т)" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "pronunciation" + ] + }, + { + "id": "gender", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "Gender from the ending", + "body": "You can tell a noun's gender from its ending almost every time. Nouns in -ь can be either and need to be learned; men's names and words like папа are masculine even though they end in -а.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Gender", + "Ending", + "Examples" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "masculine", + "consonant, -й", + "стол · table; музей · museum" + ], + [ + "feminine", + "-а, -я", + "книга · book; неделя · week" + ], + [ + "neuter", + "-о, -е", + "окно · window; море · sea" + ], + [ + "either", + "-ь", + "день · day (m); ночь · night (f)" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "nouns", + "gender" + ] + }, + { + "id": "cases", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "The six cases", + "body": "Each case answers its own question word. Learn them with the questions, as Russian schoolchildren do.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Case", + "Question", + "Main uses", + "книга" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "Nominative", + "кто? что?", + "subject", + "книга" + ], + [ + "Genitive", + "кого? чего?", + "of, none of, after numbers, у (by, at)", + "книги" + ], + [ + "Dative", + "кому? чему?", + "to, for; indirect object; age; мне нравится", + "книге" + ], + [ + "Accusative", + "кого? что?", + "direct object; motion into (в, на)", + "книгу" + ], + [ + "Instrumental", + "кем? чем?", + "with, by means of; after с (with)", + "книгой" + ], + [ + "Prepositional", + "о ком? о чём?", + "about (о); location (в, на)", + "о книге" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "cases", + "nouns" + ] + }, + { + "id": "to-be-have", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "To be and to have", + "body": [ + "There is no present tense of to be: just put the two nouns side by side. In writing, a dash may stand in its place.", + "To have is said as at me there is: у + genitive + есть." + ], + "examples": [ + { + "t": "Это мой дом.", + "r": "Eto moy dom.", + "e": "This is my house." + }, + { + "t": "Москва — столица России.", + "r": "Moskva — stolitsa Rossii.", + "e": "Moscow is the capital of Russia." + }, + { + "t": "{У меня есть} кот.", + "r": "U menya yest' kot.", + "e": "I have a cat." + }, + { + "t": "{У меня нет} кота.", + "r": "U menya net kota.", + "e": "I don't have a cat. (нет + genitive)" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "to be", + "to have" + ] + }, + { + "id": "pronouns", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "Pronouns and ты / вы", + "body": "{ты} is you to one friend, family member, child or animal. {вы} is you to several people, and the polite you to anyone you'd call by name and patronymic. When in doubt, use вы.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "", + "Singular", + "Plural" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "1st", + "я · I", + "мы · we" + ], + [ + "2nd", + "ты · you", + "вы · you (plural, polite)" + ], + [ + "3rd", + "он · he; она · she; оно · it", + "они · they" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "pronouns", + "politeness" + ] + }, + { + "id": "present-tense", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "Present tense: two conjugations", + "body": "Most verbs follow one of two patterns. First conjugation verbs have -е- in their endings; second conjugation verbs, mostly those ending in -ить, have -и-.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Person", + "читать (read)", + "говорить (speak)" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "я", + "читаю", + "говорю" + ], + [ + "ты", + "читаешь", + "говоришь" + ], + [ + "он · она", + "читает", + "говорит" + ], + [ + "мы", + "читаем", + "говорим" + ], + [ + "вы", + "читаете", + "говорите" + ], + [ + "они", + "читают", + "говорят" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "verbs", + "conjugation" + ] + }, + { + "id": "past-tense", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "Past tense agrees in gender", + "body": "The past tense is the easiest: drop -ть and add -л, then a gender and number ending. It agrees with the subject's gender, not with person.", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "Он чита{л}.", + "r": "On chital.", + "e": "He was reading. / He read." + }, + { + "t": "Она чита{ла}.", + "r": "Ona chitala.", + "e": "She was reading." + }, + { + "t": "Оно чита{ло}.", + "r": "Ono chitalo.", + "e": "It was reading." + }, + { + "t": "Они чита{ли}.", + "r": "Oni chitali.", + "e": "They were reading." + } + ], + "tags": [ + "verbs", + "past" + ] + }, + { + "id": "aspect", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "Aspect: imperfective and perfective", + "body": "Most verbs come in pairs. The {imperfective} describes a process, a repeated action or the action in general. The {perfective} describes one completed action with a result. Perfective verbs have no present tense: their present-looking forms mean the future.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Imperfective", + "Perfective", + "Meaning" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "делать", + "сделать", + "do, make" + ], + [ + "писать", + "написать", + "write" + ], + [ + "читать", + "прочитать", + "read" + ], + [ + "говорить", + "сказать", + "say" + ], + [ + "покупать", + "купить", + "buy" + ] + ] + }, + "examples": [ + { + "t": "Я {читал} книгу.", + "r": "Ya chital knigu.", + "e": "I was reading a book. / I read a book (at some point)." + }, + { + "t": "Я {прочитал} книгу.", + "r": "Ya prochital knigu.", + "e": "I read the book (to the end)." + }, + { + "t": "Я {прочитаю} книгу.", + "r": "Ya prochitayu knigu.", + "e": "I will read the book." + } + ], + "tags": [ + "verbs", + "aspect" + ] + }, + { + "id": "motion", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "Verbs of motion", + "body": "Going has separate verbs for on foot and by vehicle, and each comes in two forms: one for a single trip in one direction, one for round trips, habits and general movement.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "", + "One way, now", + "Habitual, there and back" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "on foot", + "идти", + "ходить" + ], + [ + "by vehicle", + "ехать", + "ездить" + ] + ] + }, + "examples": [ + { + "t": "Я {иду} в школу.", + "r": "Ya idu v shkolu.", + "e": "I'm on my way to school." + }, + { + "t": "Я {хожу} в школу каждый день.", + "r": "Ya khozhu v shkolu kazhdyy den'.", + "e": "I go to school every day." + }, + { + "t": "Мы {едем} в Москву.", + "r": "My yedem v Moskvu.", + "e": "We're travelling to Moscow." + } + ], + "tags": [ + "verbs", + "motion" + ] + }, + { + "id": "numbers", + "topic": "numbers", + "title": "Numbers and the noun after them", + "body": "один, два, три, четыре, пять, шесть, семь, восемь, девять, десять. The noun after a number changes case: after 1 it stays nominative singular, after 2–4 it takes genitive singular, after 5–20 genitive plural. The last digit decides above 20: 21 год, 22 года, 25 лет.", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "один год", + "r": "odin god", + "e": "one year" + }, + { + "t": "два год{а}", + "r": "dva goda", + "e": "two years" + }, + { + "t": "пять {лет}", + "r": "pyat' let", + "e": "five years" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "numbers", + "cases" ] }, { @@ -1216,44 +2512,49 @@ window.LSD_REFERENCE = { "title": "Everyday phrases", "examples": [ { - "t": "你好", - "r": "nǐ hǎo", - "e": "Hello." + "t": "Здравствуйте", + "r": "Zdravstvuyte", + "e": "Hello. (polite; the first в is silent)" }, { - "t": "谢谢", - "r": "xièxie", - "e": "Thank you." + "t": "Привет", + "r": "Privet", + "e": "Hi. (to friends)" }, { - "t": "不客气", - "r": "bú kèqi", - "e": "You're welcome." + "t": "Спасибо", + "r": "Spasibo", + "e": "Thank you." }, { - "t": "对不起", - "r": "duìbuqǐ", - "e": "Sorry." + "t": "Пожалуйста", + "r": "Pozhaluysta", + "e": "Please. You're welcome." }, { - "t": "没关系", - "r": "méi guānxi", - "e": "It doesn't matter. No problem." + "t": "Извините", + "r": "Izvinite", + "e": "Excuse me. Sorry." }, { - "t": "请问", - "r": "qǐngwèn", - "e": "Excuse me, may I ask…" + "t": "Как дела?", + "r": "Kak dela?", + "e": "How are things?" }, { - "t": "我听不懂", - "r": "wǒ tīng bu dǒng", - "e": "I don't understand (what I hear)." + "t": "Я не понимаю", + "r": "Ya ne ponimayu", + "e": "I don't understand." }, { - "t": "再见", - "r": "zàijiàn", + "t": "До свидания", + "r": "Do svidaniya", "e": "Goodbye." + }, + { + "t": "Пока", + "r": "Poka", + "e": "Bye. (to friends)" } ], "tags": [ @@ -1261,1537 +2562,1842 @@ window.LSD_REFERENCE = { ] }, { - "id": "shared-characters", - "topic": "culture", - "title": "Characters shared with Japanese and Korean", - "body": "Japanese kanji and Korean hanja came from Chinese characters, so many words can be read across all three with different pronunciations. Japan simplified some characters its own way after 1946, so a kanji may match the Simplified form (学), the Traditional one (東), or neither (売, Simplified 卖, Traditional 賣). Hanja are Traditional.", + "id": "adjectives", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "Adjective endings", + "body": "Adjectives agree with the noun in gender, number and case, and come before it. The dictionary form is masculine nominative. Soft-stem adjectives like синий (dark blue) use the soft vowels.", "table": { "head": [ - "Chinese", - "Japanese", - "Korean (hanja)", - "Meaning" + "", + "Masculine", + "Feminine", + "Neuter", + "Plural" ], "rows": [ [ - "学 xué", - "学 gaku", - "學 hak", - "study" - ], - [ - "国 guó", - "国 koku", - "國 guk", - "country" + "новый · new", + "новый дом", + "новая книга", + "новое окно", + "новые дома" ], [ - "山 shān", - "山 san · yama", - "山 san", - "mountain" + "синий · blue", + "синий дом", + "синяя книга", + "синее окно", + "синие дома" ], [ - "大学 dàxué", - "大学 daigaku", - "大學 daehak", - "university" + "большой · big", + "большой дом", + "большая книга", + "большое окно", + "большие дома" ] ] }, "tags": [ - "characters", - "kanji", - "hanja" + "adjectives", + "agreement" ] }, { - "id": "bi", + "id": "where-whither", "topic": "grammar", - "title": "Comparisons with 比", - "body": "A 比 B + adjective: A is more … than B. Don't add 很 before the adjective. Add 一点儿 (a bit) or 得多 (much) after it to say how much.", + "title": "в / на: where vs where to", + "body": "в and на take the {prepositional} for location (where?) and the {accusative} for direction (where to?). Some places use на rather than в: work, the post office, concerts, the street.", "examples": [ { - "t": "他{比}我高。", - "r": "Tā bǐ wǒ gāo.", - "e": "He is taller than me." + "t": "Я {в школе}.", + "r": "Ya v shkole.", + "e": "I'm at school. (где? prepositional)" }, { - "t": "今天{比}昨天冷{一点儿}。", - "r": "Jīntiān bǐ zuótiān lěng yìdiǎnr.", - "e": "Today is a bit colder than yesterday." + "t": "Я иду {в школу}.", + "r": "Ya idu v shkolu.", + "e": "I'm going to school. (куда? accusative)" }, { - "t": "我{没有}他{那么}高。", - "r": "Wǒ méiyǒu tā nàme gāo.", - "e": "I'm not as tall as him." + "t": "Она {на работе}.", + "r": "Ona na rabote.", + "e": "She's at work." } ], "tags": [ - "comparison" + "prepositions", + "cases" ] }, { - "id": "ba", + "id": "like", "topic": "grammar", - "title": "The 把 construction", - "body": "把 moves the object in front of the verb, to say what is done to a specific thing and where it ends up. The verb must be followed by something: a result, a place or 了.", + "title": "I like: мне нравится", + "body": "Russian says it pleases me. The liked thing is the subject, and the person who likes it is in the dative. The verb agrees with the thing.", "examples": [ { - "t": "我{把}书放在桌子上。", - "r": "Wǒ bǎ shū fàng zài zhuōzi shang.", - "e": "I put the book on the table." + "t": "{Мне} нравится музыка.", + "r": "Mne nravitsya muzyka.", + "e": "I like music." }, { - "t": "请{把}门关上。", - "r": "Qǐng bǎ mén guānshang.", - "e": "Please close the door." + "t": "{Ему} нравятся кошки.", + "r": "Yemu nravyatsya koshki.", + "e": "He likes cats. (plural verb for plural cats)" }, { - "t": "他{把}饭吃完了。", - "r": "Tā bǎ fàn chīwán le.", - "e": "He finished (eating) the meal." + "t": "{Мне} нравилось там.", + "r": "Mne nravilos' tam.", + "e": "I liked it there." } ], "tags": [ - "word order", - "ba" + "dative", + "verbs" ] - }, + } + ] + }, + "english": { + "id": "english", + "entries": [ { - "id": "shi-de", - "topic": "grammar", - "title": "是…的: when, where, how it happened", - "body": "To ask or tell when, where, how or with whom a known past event happened, wrap the detail in 是 … 的. 是 is often dropped in speech.", + "id": "at-a-glance", + "topic": "overview", + "title": "English at a glance", + "body": [ + "English is a Germanic language that took in a huge amount of French and Latin vocabulary, so it often has two words for one idea: ask and inquire, freedom and liberty.", + "It has very little inflection: nouns only change for plural and possession, and verbs have at most five forms (go, goes, went, gone, going). Word order, subject then verb then object, does most of the grammatical work, so it is strict.", + "Spelling preserves older pronunciations and many borrowings, so it is a poor guide to sound." + ], "examples": [ { - "t": "你{是}什么时候来{的}？", - "r": "Nǐ shì shénme shíhou lái de?", - "e": "When did you come?" - }, - { - "t": "我{是}坐飞机来{的}。", - "r": "Wǒ shì zuò fēijī lái de.", - "e": "I came by plane." + "t": "The dog bit the man. · The man bit the dog.", + "e": "Swapping the order swaps who did what." } ], "tags": [ - "past", - "focus" + "SVO", + "Germanic" ] }, { - "id": "resultatives", - "topic": "verbs", - "title": "Result complements", - "body": "A second verb or adjective right after the main verb says what the action achieved. Put 不 between them for can't, 得 for can.", - "table": { - "head": [ - "Compound", - "Meaning", - "Can't" - ], - "rows": [ - [ - "看懂 kàndǒng", - "read and understand", - "看不懂 · can't make sense of it" - ], - [ - "听见 tīngjiàn", - "hear (succeed in hearing)", - "听不见 · can't hear" - ], - [ - "做完 zuòwán", - "finish doing", - "做不完 · can't finish" - ], - [ - "找到 zhǎodào", - "find", - "找不到 · can't find" - ] - ] - }, + "id": "spelling", + "topic": "sounds", + "title": "Spelling and sound don't match", + "body": "The same letters can spell different sounds, and the same sound can be spelled many ways. Learn the pronunciation together with each new word, and use a dictionary's phonetic spelling when unsure.", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "th{ough} · thr{ough} · t{ough} · c{ough} · b{ough}", + "r": "/oʊ/ · /uː/ · /ʌf/ · /ɒf/ · /aʊ/", + "e": "one spelling, five sounds" + }, + { + "t": "{k}night · {w}rite · i{s}land · lam{b}", + "e": "silent letters" + }, + { + "t": "s{ee} · s{ea} · p{ie}ce · rec{ei}ve · m{e}", + "e": "one sound, five spellings" + } + ], "tags": [ - "verbs", - "complements" + "pronunciation", + "spelling" ] - } - ] - }, - "cyrillic": { - "id": "cyrillic", - "entries": [ + }, { - "id": "at-a-glance", - "topic": "overview", - "title": "Russian at a glance", + "id": "stress-schwa", + "topic": "sounds", + "title": "Stress and the schwa", "body": [ - "Russian is an East Slavic language written in Cyrillic. Nouns, adjectives and pronouns change for six cases, and there are three genders. There are no articles, and no word for is in the present tense.", - "Because endings show who does what, word order is flexible and is used for emphasis: the new or important information usually comes last.", - "Verbs come in pairs of imperfective and perfective aspect, which matters more than tense." + "English is stress-timed: stressed syllables are long and loud, and unstressed ones shrink, usually to the weak vowel schwa /ə/, the most common sound in English.", + "Stress can change the word class. Many two-syllable words are nouns with stress on the first syllable and verbs with stress on the second." ], "examples": [ { - "t": "Я студент.", - "r": "Ya student.", - "e": "I am a student." + "t": "a REcord · to reCORD", + "e": "noun · verb" }, { - "t": "Маша читает книгу.", - "r": "Masha chitayet knigu.", - "e": "Masha is reading a book." + "t": "a PREsent · to preSENT", + "e": "noun · verb" + }, + { + "t": "PHOtograph · phoTOgraphy · photoGRAPHic", + "e": "the stress moves, and the other vowels become schwa" } ], "tags": [ - "Slavic", - "cases", - "aspect" + "pronunciation", + "stress" ] }, { - "id": "false-friends", - "topic": "script", - "title": "Letters that look Latin but aren't", - "body": "Several Cyrillic letters look like Latin ones with a different sound. These cause the most mistakes at the start.", + "id": "endings", + "topic": "sounds", + "title": "Saying -ed and -s endings", + "body": "The past ending -ed and the plural or third-person -s each have three pronunciations, decided by the sound before them.", "table": { "head": [ - "Letter", + "Ending", + "After", "Sound", - "Example" + "Examples" ], "rows": [ [ - "В в", - "v", - "вода · voda · water" - ], - [ - "Н н", - "n", - "нет · net · no" - ], - [ - "Р р", - "r (rolled)", - "река · reka · river" - ], - [ - "С с", - "s", - "сок · sok · juice" - ], - [ - "У у", - "u", - "утро · utro · morning" - ], - [ - "Х х", - "kh, as in loch", - "хлеб · khleb · bread" + "-ed", + "t, d", + "/ɪd/ (extra syllable)", + "wanted, needed" ], [ - "Е е", - "ye", - "есть · yest' · to eat; there is" - ] - ] - }, - "tags": [ - "script", - "alphabet" - ] - }, - { - "id": "vowel-pairs", - "topic": "script", - "title": "Vowel pairs and the two signs", - "body": [ - "Each vowel has a hard and a soft partner. The soft vowels make the consonant before them soft (palatalized), and at the start of a word they add a y sound.", - "Two letters have no sound of their own: {ь} (the soft sign) softens the consonant before it, and {ъ} (the hard sign) keeps a consonant hard before a soft vowel." - ], - "table": { - "head": [ - "Hard", - "Soft", - "Example" - ], - "rows": [ - [ - "а · a", - "я · ya", - "мясо · myaso · meat" + "-ed", + "voiceless sounds: p, k, s, sh, ch, f", + "/t/", + "walked, stopped, washed" ], [ - "э · e", - "е · ye", - "лето · leto · summer" + "-ed", + "voiced sounds and vowels", + "/d/", + "played, called, lived" ], [ - "ы · y", - "и · i", - "быть · byt' · to be; бить · bit' · to hit" + "-s", + "s, z, sh, ch, j sounds", + "/ɪz/ (extra syllable)", + "buses, watches, pages" ], [ - "о · o", - "ё · yo", - "ёж · yozh · hedgehog" + "-s", + "voiceless sounds: p, t, k, f", + "/s/", + "cats, books, laughs" ], [ - "у · u", - "ю · yu", - "юг · yug · south" + "-s", + "voiced sounds and vowels", + "/z/", + "dogs, days, runs" ] ] }, - "examples": [ - { - "t": "мат · мат{ь}", - "r": "mat · mat'", - "e": "checkmate · mother" - }, - { - "t": "под{ъ}езд", - "r": "pod'yezd", - "e": "entrance (of a building)" - } - ], "tags": [ - "script", - "vowels", - "soft sign" + "pronunciation", + "endings" ] }, { - "id": "stress-reduction", + "id": "th", "topic": "sounds", - "title": "Stress and vowel reduction", - "body": [ - "Stress can fall on any syllable and has to be learned with each word. Only the stressed vowel is said fully: an unstressed о sounds like a, and unstressed е and я sound close to i. Textbooks mark stress with an accent; normal text does not.", - "{ё} is always stressed, but it is often printed as е." - ], + "title": "The two th sounds", + "body": "Put the tip of the tongue lightly between the teeth and blow. Voiceless /θ/ is just air; voiced /ð/ adds the voice. The voiced one is in the most common words: the, this, that, they, there, then.", "examples": [ { - "t": "молоко́", - "r": "malakó", - "e": "milk: two unstressed о said as a" - }, - { - "t": "хорошо́", - "r": "kharashó", - "e": "good, well" + "t": "{th}ink · {th}ree · ba{th}", + "r": "/θ/", + "e": "voiceless" }, { - "t": "за́мок · замо́к", - "r": "zámak · zamók", - "e": "castle · lock" + "t": "{th}is · mo{th}er · ba{th}e", + "r": "/ð/", + "e": "voiced" } ], "tags": [ "pronunciation", - "stress" + "consonants" ] }, { - "id": "devoicing", - "topic": "sounds", - "title": "Final devoicing", - "body": "At the end of a word, and before a voiceless consonant, voiced consonants lose their voice: б → p, в → f, г → k, д → t, ж → sh, з → s.", + "id": "articles", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "a, an and the", + "body": [ + "Use {a / an} for one countable thing that is new to the listener. Choose by sound, not letter: an before a vowel sound, a before a consonant sound.", + "Use {the} when the listener knows which one you mean: it was mentioned, it is unique, or the context makes it clear. Use no article for things in general in the plural or uncountable." + ], "examples": [ { - "t": "хлеб", - "r": "khlep", - "e": "bread" + "t": "{an} hour · {a} university · {an} MP · {a} one-way ticket", + "e": "the sound decides, not the letter" }, { - "t": "го́род", - "r": "górat", - "e": "city" + "t": "I saw a cat. {The} cat was black.", + "e": "second mention takes the" }, { - "t": "в{т}о́рник", - "r": "ftórnik", - "e": "Tuesday (в before т)" + "t": "Cats like milk.", + "e": "cats and milk in general: no article" } ], "tags": [ - "pronunciation" + "articles" ] }, { - "id": "gender", + "id": "countable", "topic": "grammar", - "title": "Gender from the ending", - "body": "You can tell a noun's gender from its ending almost every time. Nouns in -ь can be either and need to be learned; men's names and words like папа are masculine even though they end in -а.", + "title": "Countable and uncountable nouns", + "body": "Uncountable nouns have no plural and don't take a / an. Some that are countable in other languages are uncountable in English: advice, information, furniture, luggage, news, homework, bread. Count them with a piece of, a slice of, a bottle of.", "table": { "head": [ - "Gender", - "Ending", - "Examples" + "", + "Countable", + "Uncountable" ], "rows": [ [ - "masculine", - "consonant, -й", - "стол · table; музей · museum" + "how much?", + "how many books?", + "how much water?" ], [ - "feminine", - "-а, -я", - "книга · book; неделя · week" + "a lot", + "many books", + "much water (mostly in questions and negatives)" ], [ - "neuter", - "-о, -е", - "окно · window; море · sea" + "a small amount", + "a few books", + "a little water" ], [ - "either", - "-ь", - "день · day (m); ночь · night (f)" + "one unit", + "a book", + "a glass of water; a piece of advice" ] ] }, "tags": [ "nouns", - "gender" + "quantifiers" ] }, { - "id": "cases", - "topic": "grammar", - "title": "The six cases", - "body": "Each case answers its own question word. Learn them with the questions, as Russian schoolchildren do.", + "id": "tenses", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "The four tenses you use most", "table": { "head": [ - "Case", - "Question", - "Main uses", - "книга" + "Tense", + "Use", + "Example" ], "rows": [ [ - "Nominative", - "кто? что?", - "subject", - "книга" + "present simple", + "habits, facts, timetables", + "She works in a bank. Water boils at 100 °C." ], [ - "Genitive", - "кого? чего?", - "of, none of, after numbers, у (by, at)", - "книги" + "present continuous", + "happening now; temporary; arranged future", + "She's working from home this week." ], [ - "Dative", - "кому? чему?", - "to, for; indirect object; age; мне нравится", - "книге" + "past simple", + "finished action at a stated or understood time", + "I saw that film last year." + ], + [ + "present perfect", + "past action with present relevance; no stated time; up to now", + "I've seen that film. I've lived here for ten years." + ] + ] + }, + "examples": [ + { + "t": "I {have lost} my keys.", + "e": "They are still lost now." + }, + { + "t": "I {lost} my keys yesterday.", + "e": "A finished time: present perfect is not possible with yesterday." + } + ], + "tags": [ + "verbs", + "tenses" + ] + }, + { + "id": "irregular-verbs", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "Common irregular verbs", + "body": "Around 200 verbs are irregular, and they are the most frequent ones. Learn three forms of each: base, past and past participle.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Base", + "Past", + "Past participle" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "be", + "was / were", + "been" + ], + [ + "have", + "had", + "had" + ], + [ + "do", + "did", + "done" + ], + [ + "go", + "went", + "gone" + ], + [ + "say", + "said", + "said" + ], + [ + "get", + "got", + "got (US also gotten)" + ], + [ + "make", + "made", + "made" + ], + [ + "know", + "knew", + "known" + ], + [ + "take", + "took", + "taken" ], [ - "Accusative", - "кого? что?", - "direct object; motion into (в, на)", - "книгу" + "see", + "saw", + "seen" ], [ - "Instrumental", - "кем? чем?", - "with, by means of; after с (with)", - "книгой" + "come", + "came", + "come" ], [ - "Prepositional", - "о ком? о чём?", - "about (о); location (в, на)", - "о книге" + "think", + "thought", + "thought" ] ] }, "tags": [ - "cases", - "nouns" + "verbs", + "irregular" ] }, { - "id": "to-be-have", + "id": "do-support", "topic": "grammar", - "title": "To be and to have", - "body": [ - "There is no present tense of to be: just put the two nouns side by side. In writing, a dash may stand in its place.", - "To have is said as at me there is: у + genitive + есть." - ], + "title": "Questions and negatives with do", + "body": "Most verbs need the helper do (does, did) to make questions and negatives; the main verb goes back to its base form. Be, modal verbs (can, must, will…) and other helpers (have in perfect tenses) swap places with the subject instead.", "examples": [ { - "t": "Это мой дом.", - "r": "Eto moy dom.", - "e": "This is my house." - }, - { - "t": "Москва — столица России.", - "r": "Moskva — stolitsa Rossii.", - "e": "Moscow is the capital of Russia." + "t": "{Do} you like tea? · She {doesn't} work here.", + "e": "do and does carry the tense and the -s" }, { - "t": "{У меня есть} кот.", - "r": "U menya yest' kot.", - "e": "I have a cat." + "t": "{Did} they go? (not: Did they went?)", + "e": "the main verb is in the base form" }, { - "t": "{У меня нет} кота.", - "r": "U menya net kota.", - "e": "I don't have a cat. (нет + genitive)" + "t": "{Are} you ready? · {Can} you swim? · {Have} you eaten?", + "e": "be, modals and helpers just swap" } ], "tags": [ - "to be", - "to have" + "questions", + "negation" ] }, { - "id": "pronouns", + "id": "time-prepositions", "topic": "grammar", - "title": "Pronouns and ты / вы", - "body": "{ты} is you to one friend, family member, child or animal. {вы} is you to several people, and the polite you to anyone you'd call by name and patronymic. When in doubt, use вы.", + "title": "at, on, in for time", "table": { "head": [ - "", - "Singular", - "Plural" + "Preposition", + "Used with", + "Examples" ], "rows": [ [ - "1st", - "я · I", - "мы · we" + "at", + "clock times, mealtimes, festivals, night", + "at 7 o'clock, at lunch, at Christmas, at night" ], [ - "2nd", - "ты · you", - "вы · you (plural, polite)" + "on", + "days and dates", + "on Monday, on 4 July, on my birthday" ], [ - "3rd", - "он · he; она · she; оно · it", - "они · they" + "in", + "months, years, seasons, parts of the day, longer periods", + "in May, in 2026, in winter, in the morning" ] ] }, + "examples": [ + { + "t": "See you {on} Friday {at} six.", + "e": "" + }, + { + "t": "next week · last year · this morning", + "e": "no preposition before next, last, this, every" + } + ], "tags": [ - "pronouns", - "politeness" + "prepositions", + "time" ] }, { - "id": "present-tense", + "id": "modals", "topic": "verbs", - "title": "Present tense: two conjugations", - "body": "Most verbs follow one of two patterns. First conjugation verbs have -е- in their endings; second conjugation verbs, mostly those ending in -ить, have -и-.", + "title": "Modal verbs", + "body": "Modals never take -s, are followed by the base form without to, and form questions and negatives on their own.", "table": { "head": [ - "Person", - "читать (read)", - "говорить (speak)" + "Modal", + "Typical meaning", + "Example" ], "rows": [ [ - "я", - "читаю", - "говорю" - ], - [ - "ты", - "читаешь", - "говоришь" + "can · could", + "ability, permission, possibility", + "Can I sit here? I could swim when I was five." ], [ - "он · она", - "читает", - "говорит" + "may · might", + "possibility; formal permission", + "It might rain. May I come in?" ], [ - "мы", - "читаем", - "говорим" + "must", + "strong obligation, certainty", + "You must wear a seatbelt. She must be tired." ], [ - "вы", - "читаете", - "говорите" + "should", + "advice, expectation", + "You should see a doctor." ], [ - "они", - "читают", - "говорят" + "will · would", + "future, willingness; polite, hypothetical", + "I'll help. Would you like tea?" ] ] }, "tags": [ "verbs", - "conjugation" - ] - }, - { - "id": "past-tense", - "topic": "verbs", - "title": "Past tense agrees in gender", - "body": "The past tense is the easiest: drop -ть and add -л, then a gender and number ending. It agrees with the subject's gender, not with person.", - "examples": [ - { - "t": "Он чита{л}.", - "r": "On chital.", - "e": "He was reading. / He read." - }, - { - "t": "Она чита{ла}.", - "r": "Ona chitala.", - "e": "She was reading." - }, - { - "t": "Оно чита{ло}.", - "r": "Ono chitalo.", - "e": "It was reading." - }, - { - "t": "Они чита{ли}.", - "r": "Oni chitali.", - "e": "They were reading." - } - ], - "tags": [ - "verbs", - "past" + "modals" ] }, { - "id": "aspect", + "id": "phrasal-verbs", "topic": "verbs", - "title": "Aspect: imperfective and perfective", - "body": "Most verbs come in pairs. The {imperfective} describes a process, a repeated action or the action in general. The {perfective} describes one completed action with a result. Perfective verbs have no present tense: their present-looking forms mean the future.", + "title": "Phrasal verbs", + "body": "A verb plus a small word (up, out, off, on…) often has a meaning you can't guess from the parts. They are everywhere in speech, where a phrasal verb usually replaces a more formal Latin-based verb.", "table": { "head": [ - "Imperfective", - "Perfective", - "Meaning" + "Phrasal verb", + "Meaning", + "Formal equivalent" ], "rows": [ [ - "делать", - "сделать", - "do, make" + "give up", + "stop trying", + "abandon, quit" ], [ - "писать", - "написать", - "write" + "look after", + "take care of", + "care for" ], [ - "читать", - "прочитать", - "read" + "turn down", + "refuse; lower the volume", + "decline" ], [ - "говорить", - "сказать", - "say" + "run into", + "meet by chance", + "encounter" ], [ - "покупать", - "купить", - "buy" + "find out", + "discover a fact", + "discover" + ], + [ + "put off", + "delay", + "postpone" ] ] }, + "tags": [ + "verbs", + "phrasal verbs", + "idioms" + ] + }, + { + "id": "adjective-order", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "Order of adjectives", + "body": "When several adjectives come before a noun, native speakers follow a fixed order without thinking about it: opinion, size, age, shape, colour, origin, material, purpose. In practice, more than two or three is rare.", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "a {lovely} {little} {old} {red} {Italian} car", + "e": "opinion · size · age · colour · origin" + }, + { + "t": "a big black leather sofa", + "e": "not: a leather black big sofa" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "adjectives", + "word order" + ] + }, + { + "id": "politeness", + "topic": "phrases", + "title": "Polite requests", + "body": "English signals politeness with indirect forms rather than special pronouns. A bare imperative (Give me…) can sound rude even with please.", "examples": [ { - "t": "Я {читал} книгу.", - "r": "Ya chital knigu.", - "e": "I was reading a book. / I read a book (at some point)." + "t": "Could you pass the salt, please?", + "e": "neutral polite request" }, { - "t": "Я {прочитал} книгу.", - "r": "Ya prochital knigu.", - "e": "I read the book (to the end)." + "t": "Would you mind closing the window?", + "e": "more polite; answer No, not at all to agree" }, { - "t": "Я {прочитаю} книгу.", - "r": "Ya prochitayu knigu.", - "e": "I will read the book." + "t": "I was wondering if you could help me.", + "e": "very polite, for bigger favours" + }, + { + "t": "Sorry? · Pardon?", + "e": "Could you say that again?" + }, + { + "t": "Excuse me, …", + "e": "to get attention or get past someone" } ], "tags": [ - "verbs", - "aspect" + "politeness", + "requests" ] }, { - "id": "motion", - "topic": "verbs", - "title": "Verbs of motion", - "body": "Going has separate verbs for on foot and by vehicle, and each comes in two forms: one for a single trip in one direction, one for round trips, habits and general movement.", + "id": "conditionals", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "If sentences", + "body": "English conditionals follow four common patterns. The tense in the if-clause is one step back from the meaning: if I had (now), if I had had (then).", "table": { "head": [ - "", - "One way, now", - "Habitual, there and back" + "Type", + "Pattern", + "Example" ], "rows": [ [ - "on foot", - "идти", - "ходить" + "zero: always true", + "if + present, present", + "If you heat ice, it melts." ], [ - "by vehicle", - "ехать", - "ездить" + "first: real future", + "if + present, will", + "If it rains, I'll stay home." + ], + [ + "second: unreal now", + "if + past, would", + "If I had a car, I would drive." + ], + [ + "third: unreal past", + "if + past perfect, would have", + "If I had known, I would have come." ] ] }, + "tags": [ + "conditionals", + "grammar" + ] + }, + { + "id": "for-since", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "for and since", + "body": "With the present perfect, {for} gives a length of time and {since} gives the starting point. Many languages use the present tense here; English doesn't.", "examples": [ { - "t": "Я {иду} в школу.", - "r": "Ya idu v shkolu.", - "e": "I'm on my way to school." + "t": "I've lived here {for} three years.", + "e": "a length of time" }, { - "t": "Я {хожу} в школу каждый день.", - "r": "Ya khozhu v shkolu kazhdyy den'.", - "e": "I go to school every day." + "t": "I've lived here {since} 2023.", + "e": "a starting point" }, { - "t": "Мы {едем} в Москву.", - "r": "My yedem v Moskvu.", - "e": "We're travelling to Moscow." + "t": "not: I live here since 2023.", + "e": "a common learner mistake" } ], "tags": [ - "verbs", - "motion" + "present perfect", + "prepositions" ] }, { - "id": "numbers", - "topic": "numbers", - "title": "Numbers and the noun after them", - "body": "один, два, три, четыре, пять, шесть, семь, восемь, девять, десять. The noun after a number changes case: after 1 it stays nominative singular, after 2–4 it takes genitive singular, after 5–20 genitive plural. The last digit decides above 20: 21 год, 22 года, 25 лет.", + "id": "used-to", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "used to", + "body": "used to + base verb describes past habits or states that are no longer true. The question and negative are did you use to / didn't use to. Don't confuse it with be used to + -ing, which means be accustomed to.", "examples": [ { - "t": "один год", - "r": "odin god", - "e": "one year" - }, - { - "t": "два год{а}", - "r": "dva goda", - "e": "two years" + "t": "I {used to} play the piano.", + "e": "I don't any more." }, { - "t": "пять {лет}", - "r": "pyat' let", - "e": "five years" + "t": "I'm {used to} getting up early.", + "e": "It isn't hard for me." } ], "tags": [ - "numbers", - "cases" + "past", + "habits" ] - }, + } + ] + }, + "georgian": { + "id": "georgian", + "entries": [ { - "id": "phrases", - "topic": "phrases", - "title": "Everyday phrases", + "id": "at-a-glance", + "topic": "overview", + "title": "Georgian at a glance", + "body": [ + "Georgian is the language of Georgia, spoken by about four million people. It belongs to the Kartvelian family, which is related to no other language family; its close relatives are Mingrelian, Laz and Svan.", + "There are no articles and no grammatical gender. Nouns take case endings and postpositions, and the verb carries prefixes and suffixes for both subject and object. Words can start with long clusters of consonants: გვფრცქვნი (gvprtskvni), “you peel us”." + ], "examples": [ { - "t": "Здравствуйте", - "r": "Zdravstvuyte", - "e": "Hello. (polite; the first в is silent)" - }, - { - "t": "Привет", - "r": "Privet", - "e": "Hi. (to friends)" - }, - { - "t": "Спасибо", - "r": "Spasibo", - "e": "Thank you." - }, - { - "t": "Пожалуйста", - "r": "Pozhaluysta", - "e": "Please. You're welcome." - }, - { - "t": "Извините", - "r": "Izvinite", - "e": "Excuse me. Sorry." - }, - { - "t": "Как дела?", - "r": "Kak dela?", - "e": "How are things?" - }, - { - "t": "Я не понимаю", - "r": "Ya ne ponimayu", - "e": "I don't understand." - }, - { - "t": "До свидания", - "r": "Do svidaniya", - "e": "Goodbye." - }, - { - "t": "Пока", - "r": "Poka", - "e": "Bye. (to friends)" + "t": "{მიყვარს} საქართველო.", + "r": "Miq'vars Sakartvelo.", + "e": "I love Georgia." } ], "tags": [ - "greetings" + "Kartvelian", + "no gender", + "agglutinative" + ] + }, + { + "id": "mkhedruli", + "topic": "script", + "title": "Mkhedruli", + "body": [ + "Modern Georgian is written in Mkhedruli, an alphabet of 33 letters with no capitals. Each letter has one sound, and each sound one letter, so spelling is regular.", + "Two older Georgian scripts, Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri, are still used in the church. Asomtavruli letters (Mtavruli) are sometimes used in titles as if they were capitals." + ], + "table": { + "head": [ + "Letter", + "Sound", + "Letter", + "Sound" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "ა", + "a", + "ბ", + "b" + ], + [ + "გ", + "g", + "დ", + "d" + ], + [ + "ე", + "e", + "ვ", + "v" + ], + [ + "ზ", + "z", + "თ", + "t" + ], + [ + "ი", + "i", + "კ", + "k'" + ], + [ + "ლ", + "l", + "მ", + "m" + ], + [ + "ნ", + "n", + "ო", + "o" + ], + [ + "პ", + "p'", + "ჟ", + "zh" + ], + [ + "რ", + "r", + "ს", + "s" + ], + [ + "ტ", + "t'", + "უ", + "u" + ], + [ + "ფ", + "p", + "ქ", + "k" + ], + [ + "ღ", + "gh", + "ყ", + "q'" + ], + [ + "შ", + "sh", + "ჩ", + "ch" + ], + [ + "ც", + "ts", + "ძ", + "dz" + ], + [ + "წ", + "ts'", + "ჭ", + "ch'" + ], + [ + "ხ", + "kh", + "ჯ", + "j" + ], + [ + "ჰ", + "h", + "", + "" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "script", + "letters" + ] + }, + { + "id": "ejectives", + "topic": "sounds", + "title": "Three kinds of consonant", + "body": "Georgian has three versions of many stops: voiced (b, d, g), breathy (p, t, k, said with a puff of air as in English) and ejective (p', t', k', said with a closed throat and a pop, with no puff). The apostrophe in the romanization marks the ejective one, and mixing them up changes the word.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Voiced", + "Breathy", + "Ejective" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "ბ b", + "ფ p", + "პ p'" + ], + [ + "დ d", + "თ t", + "ტ t'" + ], + [ + "გ g", + "ქ k", + "კ k'" + ], + [ + "ძ dz", + "ც ts", + "წ ts'" + ], + [ + "ჯ j", + "ჩ ch", + "ჭ ch'" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "pronunciation", + "ejectives" ] }, { - "id": "adjectives", + "id": "cases", "topic": "grammar", - "title": "Adjective endings", - "body": "Adjectives agree with the noun in gender, number and case, and come before it. The dictionary form is masculine nominative. Soft-stem adjectives like синий (dark blue) use the soft vowels.", + "title": "Main cases", + "body": "Georgian has seven cases. Here are the forms of კაცი (man) and ქალაქი (city). Which case the subject takes depends on the verb's tense: the ergative -მა is used for the subject of most past-tense verbs.", "table": { "head": [ - "", - "Masculine", - "Feminine", - "Neuter", - "Plural" + "Case", + "Ending", + "კაცი", + "Use" ], "rows": [ [ - "новый · new", - "новый дом", - "новая книга", - "новое окно", - "новые дома" + "Nominative", + "-ი", + "კაცი", + "subject (present)" ], [ - "синий · blue", - "синий дом", - "синяя книга", - "синее окно", - "синие дома" + "Ergative", + "-მა", + "კაცმა", + "subject (past)" ], [ - "большой · big", - "большой дом", - "большая книга", - "большое окно", - "большие дома" + "Dative", + "-ს", + "კაცს", + "object; to" + ], + [ + "Genitive", + "-ის", + "კაცის", + "of" + ], + [ + "Instrumental", + "-ით", + "კაცით", + "with, by means of" + ], + [ + "Adverbial", + "-ად", + "კაცად", + "as; in the role of" + ], + [ + "Vocative", + "-ო", + "კაცო", + "calling someone" ] ] }, "tags": [ - "adjectives", - "agreement" + "cases", + "ergative" ] }, { - "id": "where-whither", + "id": "postpositions", "topic": "grammar", - "title": "в / на: where vs where to", - "body": "в and на take the {prepositional} for location (where?) and the {accusative} for direction (where to?). Some places use на rather than в: work, the post office, concerts, the street.", - "examples": [ - { - "t": "Я {в школе}.", - "r": "Ya v shkole.", - "e": "I'm at school. (где? prepositional)" - }, - { - "t": "Я иду {в школу}.", - "r": "Ya idu v shkolu.", - "e": "I'm going to school. (куда? accusative)" - }, - { - "t": "Она {на работе}.", - "r": "Ona na rabote.", - "e": "She's at work." - } - ], + "title": "Postpositions", + "body": "Where English has prepositions, Georgian adds an ending to the noun. Most attach to the dative (-ს), which then drops its ს.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Ending", + "Meaning", + "Example" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "-ში", + "in, into", + "თბილისში, in Tbilisi" + ], + [ + "-ზე", + "on, about", + "მაგიდაზე, on the table" + ], + [ + "-თან", + "at, near, with (a person)", + "მეგობართან, at a friend's" + ], + [ + "-დან", + "from", + "თბილისიდან, from Tbilisi" + ], + [ + "-ისთვის", + "for", + "შენთვის, for you" + ], + [ + "-ივით", + "like", + "ბავშვივით, like a child" + ] + ] + }, "tags": [ - "prepositions", + "postpositions", "cases" ] }, { - "id": "like", - "topic": "grammar", - "title": "I like: мне нравится", - "body": "Russian says it pleases me. The liked thing is the subject, and the person who likes it is in the dative. The verb agrees with the thing.", - "examples": [ - { - "t": "{Мне} нравится музыка.", - "r": "Mne nravitsya muzyka.", - "e": "I like music." - }, - { - "t": "{Ему} нравятся кошки.", - "r": "Yemu nravyatsya koshki.", - "e": "He likes cats. (plural verb for plural cats)" - }, - { - "t": "{Мне} нравилось там.", - "r": "Mne nravilos' tam.", - "e": "I liked it there." - } - ], - "tags": [ - "dative", - "verbs" - ] - } - ] - }, - "english": { - "id": "english", - "entries": [ - { - "id": "at-a-glance", - "topic": "overview", - "title": "English at a glance", - "body": [ - "English is a Germanic language that took in a huge amount of French and Latin vocabulary, so it often has two words for one idea: ask and inquire, freedom and liberty.", - "It has very little inflection: nouns only change for plural and possession, and verbs have at most five forms (go, goes, went, gone, going). Word order, subject then verb then object, does most of the grammatical work, so it is strict.", - "Spelling preserves older pronunciations and many borrowings, so it is a poor guide to sound." - ], - "examples": [ - { - "t": "The dog bit the man. · The man bit the dog.", - "e": "Swapping the order swaps who did what." - } - ], - "tags": [ - "SVO", - "Germanic" - ] - }, - { - "id": "spelling", - "topic": "sounds", - "title": "Spelling and sound don't match", - "body": "The same letters can spell different sounds, and the same sound can be spelled many ways. Learn the pronunciation together with each new word, and use a dictionary's phonetic spelling when unsure.", + "id": "to-be", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "“To be”", + "body": "In the present, “to be” is very regular. In speech არის (is) often shrinks to -ა on the end of the word before it.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "", + "Singular", + "Plural" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "1st", + "ვარ var", + "ვართ vart" + ], + [ + "2nd", + "ხარ khar", + "ხართ khart" + ], + [ + "3rd", + "არის aris", + "არიან arian" + ] + ] + }, "examples": [ { - "t": "th{ough} · thr{ough} · t{ough} · c{ough} · b{ough}", - "r": "/oʊ/ · /uː/ · /ʌf/ · /ɒf/ · /aʊ/", - "e": "one spelling, five sounds" - }, - { - "t": "{k}night · {w}rite · i{s}land · lam{b}", - "e": "silent letters" - }, - { - "t": "s{ee} · s{ea} · p{ie}ce · rec{ei}ve · m{e}", - "e": "one sound, five spellings" + "t": "ეს ჩემი სახლი{ა}.", + "r": "Es chemi sakhlia.", + "e": "This is my house." } ], "tags": [ - "pronunciation", - "spelling" + "verbs", + "to be" ] }, { - "id": "stress-schwa", - "topic": "sounds", - "title": "Stress and the schwa", - "body": [ - "English is stress-timed: stressed syllables are long and loud, and unstressed ones shrink, usually to the weak vowel schwa /ə/, the most common sound in English.", - "Stress can change the word class. Many two-syllable words are nouns with stress on the first syllable and verbs with stress on the second." - ], - "examples": [ - { - "t": "a REcord · to reCORD", - "e": "noun · verb" - }, - { - "t": "a PREsent · to preSENT", - "e": "noun · verb" - }, - { - "t": "PHOtograph · phoTOgraphy · photoGRAPHic", - "e": "the stress moves, and the other vowels become schwa" - } - ], + "id": "inverted", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "Feelings take the dative", + "body": "Verbs of feeling, wanting and having treat the person as the object: მიყვარს is literally “(it) is loved to me”. The prefix shows who: მ- me, გ- you, ∅/ს- him or her.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "", + "I", + "you", + "he / she" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "want", + "მინდა minda", + "გინდა ginda", + "უნდა unda" + ], + [ + "love", + "მიყვარს miq'vars", + "გიყვარს giq'vars", + "უყვარს uq'vars" + ], + [ + "have (a thing)", + "მაქვს makvs", + "გაქვს gakvs", + "აქვს akvs" + ] + ] + }, "tags": [ - "pronunciation", - "stress" + "verbs", + "inversion" ] }, { - "id": "endings", - "topic": "sounds", - "title": "Saying -ed and -s endings", - "body": "The past ending -ed and the plural or third-person -s each have three pronunciations, decided by the sound before them.", + "id": "numbers", + "topic": "numbers", + "title": "Counting in twenties", + "body": "Above twenty, Georgian counts in twenties, like French quatre-vingts: 30 is “twenty and ten”, 40 is “two twenties”, 50 is “two twenties and ten”. A noun after a number stays singular.", "table": { "head": [ - "Ending", - "After", - "Sound", - "Examples" + "", + "Georgian", + "Literally" ], "rows": [ [ - "-ed", - "t, d", - "/ɪd/ (extra syllable)", - "wanted, needed" + "1", + "ერთი erti", + "" + ], + [ + "2", + "ორი ori", + "" + ], + [ + "3", + "სამი sami", + "" + ], + [ + "4", + "ოთხი otkhi", + "" + ], + [ + "5", + "ხუთი khuti", + "" + ], + [ + "10", + "ათი ati", + "" + ], + [ + "20", + "ოცი otsi", + "" ], [ - "-ed", - "voiceless sounds: p, k, s, sh, ch, f", - "/t/", - "walked, stopped, washed" + "30", + "ოცდაათი otsdaati", + "twenty and ten" ], [ - "-ed", - "voiced sounds and vowels", - "/d/", - "played, called, lived" + "40", + "ორმოცი ormotsi", + "two twenties" ], [ - "-s", - "s, z, sh, ch, j sounds", - "/ɪz/ (extra syllable)", - "buses, watches, pages" + "60", + "სამოცი samotsi", + "three twenties" ], [ - "-s", - "voiceless sounds: p, t, k, f", - "/s/", - "cats, books, laughs" + "80", + "ოთხმოცი otkhmotsi", + "four twenties" ], [ - "-s", - "voiced sounds and vowels", - "/z/", - "dogs, days, runs" + "100", + "ასი asi", + "" ] ] }, "tags": [ - "pronunciation", - "endings" + "numbers", + "vigesimal" ] }, { - "id": "th", - "topic": "sounds", - "title": "The two th sounds", - "body": "Put the tip of the tongue lightly between the teeth and blow. Voiceless /θ/ is just air; voiced /ð/ adds the voice. The voiced one is in the most common words: the, this, that, they, there, then.", + "id": "phrases", + "topic": "phrases", + "title": "Everyday phrases", "examples": [ { - "t": "{th}ink · {th}ree · ba{th}", - "r": "/θ/", - "e": "voiceless" + "t": "გამარჯობა!", + "r": "Gamarjoba!", + "e": "Hello!" }, { - "t": "{th}is · mo{th}er · ba{th}e", - "r": "/ð/", - "e": "voiced" + "t": "დიდი მადლობა.", + "r": "Didi madloba.", + "e": "Thank you very much." + }, + { + "t": "ბოდიში, არ მესმის.", + "r": "Bodishi, ar mesmis.", + "e": "Sorry, I don't understand." + }, + { + "t": "ინგლისურად ლაპარაკობთ?", + "r": "Inglisurad lap'arak'obt?", + "e": "Do you speak English?" + }, + { + "t": "რა ღირს?", + "r": "Ra ghirs?", + "e": "How much is it?" + }, + { + "t": "გაუმარჯოს!", + "r": "Gaumarjos!", + "e": "Cheers!" } ], "tags": [ - "pronunciation", - "consonants" + "phrases", + "travel" ] }, { - "id": "articles", - "topic": "grammar", - "title": "a, an and the", + "id": "supra", + "topic": "culture", + "title": "The supra", + "body": "A supra is a Georgian feast. A tamada (თამადა, toastmaster) leads a long series of toasts: to peace, to the hosts, to parents, to those who have died, to friendship. Guests drink when the tamada finishes a toast, and wine is the usual drink; beer is traditionally reserved for toasting enemies.", + "tags": [ + "culture", + "food", + "wine" + ] + } + ] + }, + "greek": { + "id": "greek", + "entries": [ + { + "id": "at-a-glance", + "topic": "overview", + "title": "Greek at a glance", "body": [ - "Use {a / an} for one countable thing that is new to the listener. Choose by sound, not letter: an before a vowel sound, a before a consonant sound.", - "Use {the} when the listener knows which one you mean: it was mentioned, it is unique, or the context makes it clear. Use no article for things in general in the plural or uncountable." + "Modern Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus, spoken by about 13 million people. It is its own branch of the Indo-European family, and it has been written in the Greek alphabet for nearly three thousand years.", + "Nouns have three genders and change their ending for case; the article in front shows both. Verbs mark the person with an ending, so pronouns are usually left out. Word order is flexible, though subject–verb–object is the most common." ], "examples": [ { - "t": "{an} hour · {a} university · {an} MP · {a} one-way ticket", - "e": "the sound decides, not the letter" - }, - { - "t": "I saw a cat. {The} cat was black.", - "e": "second mention takes the" - }, - { - "t": "Cats like milk.", - "e": "cats and milk in general: no article" + "t": "{Μιλάω} λίγα ελληνικά.", + "r": "Miláo líga elliniká.", + "e": "I speak a little Greek." } ], "tags": [ - "articles" + "Indo-European", + "gender", + "cases" ] }, { - "id": "countable", - "topic": "grammar", - "title": "Countable and uncountable nouns", - "body": "Uncountable nouns have no plural and don't take a / an. Some that are countable in other languages are uncountable in English: advice, information, furniture, luggage, news, homework, bread. Count them with a piece of, a slice of, a bottle of.", + "id": "alphabet", + "topic": "script", + "title": "The alphabet", + "body": [ + "Greek has 24 letters, each with a capital and a small form. Sigma has two small forms: σ inside a word and ς at the end.", + "Several letters look like Latin ones but sound different: Η η is i, Ρ ρ is r, Ν ν is n, Υ υ is i, Χ χ is the ch in Bach, and Β β is v." + ], "table": { "head": [ - "", - "Countable", - "Uncountable" + "Letter", + "Name", + "Sound" ], "rows": [ [ - "how much?", - "how many books?", - "how much water?" + "Α α", + "άλφα", + "a" ], [ - "a lot", - "many books", - "much water (mostly in questions and negatives)" + "Β β", + "βήτα", + "v" ], [ - "a small amount", - "a few books", - "a little water" + "Γ γ", + "γάμμα", + "gh, or y before e/i" ], [ - "one unit", - "a book", - "a glass of water; a piece of advice" - ] - ] - }, - "tags": [ - "nouns", - "quantifiers" - ] - }, - { - "id": "tenses", - "topic": "verbs", - "title": "The four tenses you use most", - "table": { - "head": [ - "Tense", - "Use", - "Example" - ], - "rows": [ + "Δ δ", + "δέλτα", + "th as in this" + ], [ - "present simple", - "habits, facts, timetables", - "She works in a bank. Water boils at 100 °C." + "Ε ε", + "έψιλον", + "e" ], [ - "present continuous", - "happening now; temporary; arranged future", - "She's working from home this week." + "Ζ ζ", + "ζήτα", + "z" ], [ - "past simple", - "finished action at a stated or understood time", - "I saw that film last year." + "Η η", + "ήτα", + "i" ], [ - "present perfect", - "past action with present relevance; no stated time; up to now", - "I've seen that film. I've lived here for ten years." + "Θ θ", + "θήτα", + "th as in thin" + ], + [ + "Ι ι", + "γιώτα", + "i" + ], + [ + "Κ κ", + "κάππα", + "k" + ], + [ + "Λ λ", + "λάμδα", + "l" + ], + [ + "Μ μ", + "μι", + "m" + ], + [ + "Ν ν", + "νι", + "n" + ], + [ + "Ξ ξ", + "ξι", + "ks" + ], + [ + "Ο ο", + "όμικρον", + "o" + ], + [ + "Π π", + "πι", + "p" + ], + [ + "Ρ ρ", + "ρο", + "r (tapped)" + ], + [ + "Σ σ ς", + "σίγμα", + "s" + ], + [ + "Τ τ", + "ταυ", + "t" + ], + [ + "Υ υ", + "ύψιλον", + "i" + ], + [ + "Φ φ", + "φι", + "f" + ], + [ + "Χ χ", + "χι", + "ch as in Bach" + ], + [ + "Ψ ψ", + "ψι", + "ps" + ], + [ + "Ω ω", + "ωμέγα", + "o" ] ] }, - "examples": [ - { - "t": "I {have lost} my keys.", - "e": "They are still lost now." - }, - { - "t": "I {lost} my keys yesterday.", - "e": "A finished time: present perfect is not possible with yesterday." - } - ], "tags": [ - "verbs", - "tenses" + "script", + "letters" ] }, { - "id": "irregular-verbs", - "topic": "verbs", - "title": "Common irregular verbs", - "body": "Around 200 verbs are irregular, and they are the most frequent ones. Learn three forms of each: base, past and past participle.", + "id": "digraphs", + "topic": "sounds", + "title": "Letter pairs", + "body": "Some pairs of letters make one sound. Several spellings share the sound i, so spelling has to be learned word by word.", "table": { "head": [ - "Base", - "Past", - "Past participle" + "Pair", + "Sound", + "Example" ], "rows": [ [ - "be", - "was / were", - "been" - ], - [ - "have", - "had", - "had" - ], - [ - "do", - "did", - "done" - ], - [ - "go", - "went", - "gone" - ], - [ - "say", - "said", - "said" + "ει, οι, υι", + "i", + "{ει}μαι, “I am”" ], [ - "get", - "got", - "got (US also gotten)" + "αι", + "e", + "κ{αι}, “and”" ], [ - "make", - "made", - "made" + "ου", + "u", + "π{ου}, “where”" ], [ - "know", - "knew", - "known" + "αυ, ευ", + "av / ev, or af / ef", + "{αυ}τός, “he”" ], [ - "take", - "took", - "taken" + "μπ", + "b (mb inside a word)", + "{μπ}ύρα, “beer”" ], [ - "see", - "saw", - "seen" + "ντ", + "d (nd inside a word)", + "{ντ}ομάτα, “tomato”" ], [ - "come", - "came", - "come" + "γκ, γγ", + "g (ng inside a word)", + "{γκ}αράζ, “garage”" ], [ - "think", - "thought", - "thought" + "τσ, τζ", + "ts, dz", + "{τσ}άι, “tea”" ] ] }, "tags": [ - "verbs", - "irregular" + "pronunciation", + "digraphs" ] }, { - "id": "do-support", - "topic": "grammar", - "title": "Questions and negatives with do", - "body": "Most verbs need the helper do (does, did) to make questions and negatives; the main verb goes back to its base form. Be, modal verbs (can, must, will…) and other helpers (have in perfect tenses) swap places with the subject instead.", + "id": "stress", + "topic": "sounds", + "title": "The stress mark", + "body": "Every word of more than one syllable carries an accent (τόνος) on its stressed vowel. It matters: πότε means “when?” but ποτέ means “never”. Capitals written in full (ΑΘΗΝΑ) drop the accent.", "examples": [ { - "t": "{Do} you like tea? · She {doesn't} work here.", - "e": "do and does carry the tense and the -s" + "t": "π{ό}τε · ποτ{έ}", + "r": "póte · poté", + "e": "when? · never" }, { - "t": "{Did} they go? (not: Did they went?)", - "e": "the main verb is in the base form" - }, + "t": "ν{ό}μος · νομ{ό}ς", + "r": "nómos · nomós", + "e": "law · prefecture" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "stress", + "accent" + ] + }, + { + "id": "punctuation", + "topic": "script", + "title": "Punctuation", + "body": "Greek writes the question mark as ; and the raised dot · as a semicolon. Commas and full stops are the same as in English.", + "examples": [ { - "t": "{Are} you ready? · {Can} you swim? · {Have} you eaten?", - "e": "be, modals and helpers just swap" + "t": "Τι κάνεις{;}", + "r": "Ti kánis?", + "e": "How are you?" } ], "tags": [ - "questions", - "negation" + "punctuation" ] }, { - "id": "time-prepositions", + "id": "articles", "topic": "grammar", - "title": "at, on, in for time", + "title": "The article", + "body": "“The” agrees with its noun in gender, number and case. The forms below are the ones a beginner meets most: subject (nominative) and object (accusative).", "table": { "head": [ - "Preposition", - "Used with", - "Examples" + "", + "Masculine", + "Feminine", + "Neuter" ], "rows": [ [ - "at", - "clock times, mealtimes, festivals, night", - "at 7 o'clock, at lunch, at Christmas, at night" + "Subject, singular", + "ο", + "η", + "το" ], [ - "on", - "days and dates", - "on Monday, on 4 July, on my birthday" + "Object, singular", + "τον", + "την", + "το" ], [ - "in", - "months, years, seasons, parts of the day, longer periods", - "in May, in 2026, in winter, in the morning" + "Subject, plural", + "οι", + "οι", + "τα" + ], + [ + "Object, plural", + "τους", + "τις", + "τα" + ], + [ + "“a, one”", + "ένας", + "μία / μια", + "ένα" ] ] }, - "examples": [ - { - "t": "See you {on} Friday {at} six.", - "e": "" - }, - { - "t": "next week · last year · this morning", - "e": "no preposition before next, last, this, every" - } - ], "tags": [ - "prepositions", - "time" + "articles", + "gender", + "cases" ] }, { - "id": "modals", - "topic": "verbs", - "title": "Modal verbs", - "body": "Modals never take -s, are followed by the base form without to, and form questions and negatives on their own.", + "id": "noun-endings", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "Common noun endings", + "body": "The ending of a noun usually gives away its gender, and tells you how it makes its plural.", "table": { "head": [ - "Modal", - "Typical meaning", + "Gender", + "Singular", + "Plural", "Example" ], "rows": [ [ - "can · could", - "ability, permission, possibility", - "Can I sit here? I could swim when I was five." + "Masculine", + "-ος", + "-οι", + "ο φίλος → οι φίλοι" ], [ - "may · might", - "possibility; formal permission", - "It might rain. May I come in?" + "Masculine", + "-ας", + "-ες", + "ο άντρας → οι άντρες" ], [ - "must", - "strong obligation, certainty", - "You must wear a seatbelt. She must be tired." + "Masculine", + "-ης", + "-ες", + "ο μαθητής → οι μαθητές" ], [ - "should", - "advice, expectation", - "You should see a doctor." + "Feminine", + "-α", + "-ες", + "η ώρα → οι ώρες" ], [ - "will · would", - "future, willingness; polite, hypothetical", - "I'll help. Would you like tea?" + "Feminine", + "-η", + "-ες", + "η φωνή → οι φωνές" + ], + [ + "Neuter", + "-ο", + "-α", + "το βιβλίο → τα βιβλία" + ], + [ + "Neuter", + "-ι", + "-ια", + "το σπίτι → τα σπίτια" + ], + [ + "Neuter", + "-μα", + "-ματα", + "το όνομα → τα ονόματα" ] ] }, "tags": [ - "verbs", - "modals" + "nouns", + "plural" ] }, { - "id": "phrasal-verbs", + "id": "present", "topic": "verbs", - "title": "Phrasal verbs", - "body": "A verb plus a small word (up, out, off, on…) often has a meaning you can't guess from the parts. They are everywhere in speech, where a phrasal verb usually replaces a more formal Latin-based verb.", + "title": "The present tense", + "body": "Two main patterns. Verbs stressed before the ending (group A) and verbs stressed on the ending (group B). Είμαι, “to be”, is irregular.", "table": { "head": [ - "Phrasal verb", - "Meaning", - "Formal equivalent" + "", + "γράφω, write", + "μιλάω, speak", + "είμαι, be" ], "rows": [ [ - "give up", - "stop trying", - "abandon, quit" + "I", + "γράφω", + "μιλάω", + "είμαι" ], [ - "look after", - "take care of", - "care for" + "you", + "γράφεις", + "μιλάς", + "είσαι" ], [ - "turn down", - "refuse; lower the volume", - "decline" + "he, she, it", + "γράφει", + "μιλάει", + "είναι" ], [ - "run into", - "meet by chance", - "encounter" + "we", + "γράφουμε", + "μιλάμε", + "είμαστε" ], [ - "find out", - "discover a fact", - "discover" + "you (pl.)", + "γράφετε", + "μιλάτε", + "είστε" ], [ - "put off", - "delay", - "postpone" + "they", + "γράφουν", + "μιλάνε", + "είναι" ] ] }, "tags": [ "verbs", - "phrasal verbs", - "idioms" - ] - }, - { - "id": "adjective-order", - "topic": "grammar", - "title": "Order of adjectives", - "body": "When several adjectives come before a noun, native speakers follow a fixed order without thinking about it: opinion, size, age, shape, colour, origin, material, purpose. In practice, more than two or three is rare.", - "examples": [ - { - "t": "a {lovely} {little} {old} {red} {Italian} car", - "e": "opinion · size · age · colour · origin" - }, - { - "t": "a big black leather sofa", - "e": "not: a leather black big sofa" - } - ], - "tags": [ - "adjectives", - "word order" - ] - }, - { - "id": "politeness", - "topic": "phrases", - "title": "Polite requests", - "body": "English signals politeness with indirect forms rather than special pronouns. A bare imperative (Give me…) can sound rude even with please.", - "examples": [ - { - "t": "Could you pass the salt, please?", - "e": "neutral polite request" - }, - { - "t": "Would you mind closing the window?", - "e": "more polite; answer No, not at all to agree" - }, - { - "t": "I was wondering if you could help me.", - "e": "very polite, for bigger favours" - }, - { - "t": "Sorry? · Pardon?", - "e": "Could you say that again?" - }, - { - "t": "Excuse me, …", - "e": "to get attention or get past someone" - } - ], - "tags": [ - "politeness", - "requests" + "present" ] }, { - "id": "conditionals", - "topic": "grammar", - "title": "If sentences", - "body": "English conditionals follow four common patterns. The tense in the if-clause is one step back from the meaning: if I had (now), if I had had (then).", + "id": "numbers", + "topic": "numbers", + "title": "Numbers", + "body": "One, three and four change with the gender of the noun (ένας / μία / ένα, τρεις / τρία, τέσσερις / τέσσερα). The rest do not.", "table": { "head": [ - "Type", - "Pattern", - "Example" + "", + "Greek", + "Romanization" ], "rows": [ [ - "zero: always true", - "if + present, present", - "If you heat ice, it melts." + "1", + "ένα", + "éna" ], [ - "first: real future", - "if + present, will", - "If it rains, I'll stay home." + "2", + "δύο", + "dío" ], [ - "second: unreal now", - "if + past, would", - "If I had a car, I would drive." + "3", + "τρία", + "tría" ], [ - "third: unreal past", - "if + past perfect, would have", - "If I had known, I would have come." + "4", + "τέσσερα", + "téssera" + ], + [ + "5", + "πέντε", + "pénde" + ], + [ + "6", + "έξι", + "éxi" + ], + [ + "7", + "επτά / εφτά", + "eptá / eftá" + ], + [ + "8", + "οκτώ / οχτώ", + "októ / ochtó" + ], + [ + "9", + "εννέα / εννιά", + "ennéa / enniá" + ], + [ + "10", + "δέκα", + "déka" + ], + [ + "20", + "είκοσι", + "íkosi" + ], + [ + "100", + "εκατό", + "ekató" + ], + [ + "1000", + "χίλια", + "chília" ] ] }, "tags": [ - "conditionals", - "grammar" + "numbers" ] }, { - "id": "for-since", - "topic": "verbs", - "title": "for and since", - "body": "With the present perfect, {for} gives a length of time and {since} gives the starting point. Many languages use the present tense here; English doesn't.", + "id": "phrases", + "topic": "phrases", + "title": "Everyday phrases", "examples": [ { - "t": "I've lived here {for} three years.", - "e": "a length of time" + "t": "Γεια σας.", + "r": "Giá sas.", + "e": "Hello. (polite or to several people)" }, { - "t": "I've lived here {since} 2023.", - "e": "a starting point" + "t": "Καλημέρα.", + "r": "Kaliméra.", + "e": "Good morning." }, { - "t": "not: I live here since 2023.", - "e": "a common learner mistake" - } - ], - "tags": [ - "present perfect", - "prepositions" - ] - }, - { - "id": "used-to", - "topic": "verbs", - "title": "used to", - "body": "used to + base verb describes past habits or states that are no longer true. The question and negative are did you use to / didn't use to. Don't confuse it with be used to + -ing, which means be accustomed to.", - "examples": [ + "t": "Ευχαριστώ πολύ.", + "r": "Efcharistó polí.", + "e": "Thank you very much." + }, + { + "t": "Παρακαλώ.", + "r": "Parakaló.", + "e": "Please. / You're welcome." + }, + { + "t": "Συγγνώμη, δεν καταλαβαίνω.", + "r": "Signómi, den katalavéno.", + "e": "Sorry, I don't understand." + }, + { + "t": "Πόσο κάνει;", + "r": "Póso káni?", + "e": "How much is it?" + }, { - "t": "I {used to} play the piano.", - "e": "I don't any more." + "t": "Τον λογαριασμό, παρακαλώ.", + "r": "Ton logariasmó, parakaló.", + "e": "The bill, please." }, { - "t": "I'm {used to} getting up early.", - "e": "It isn't hard for me." + "t": "Στην υγειά μας!", + "r": "Stin igiá mas!", + "e": "Cheers! (to our health)" } ], "tags": [ - "past", - "habits" + "phrases", + "travel" + ] + }, + { + "id": "nai-ochi", + "topic": "culture", + "title": "Ναι means yes", + "body": "Ναι (ne) is “yes” and όχι (óchi) is “no”, the reverse of what English ears expect. In conversation a small upward nod with raised eyebrows, often with a click of the tongue, also means no.", + "tags": [ + "culture", + "gestures" ] } ] @@ -3439,8 +5045,458 @@ window.LSD_REFERENCE = { ] }, "tags": [ - "connectors", - "clauses" + "connectors", + "clauses" + ] + } + ] + }, + "hebrew": { + "id": "hebrew", + "entries": [ + { + "id": "at-a-glance", + "topic": "overview", + "title": "Hebrew at a glance", + "body": [ + "Modern Hebrew is a Semitic language, related to Arabic and Aramaic, and the main language of Israel. It was revived as an everyday spoken language in the late 19th and early 20th centuries after centuries of use mainly in prayer and writing.", + "Words are built from roots of three consonants: כ־ת־ב (k-t-v) gives כותב “writes”, מכתב “letter” and כתובת “address”. Nouns, adjectives and verbs mark masculine or feminine, and the present tense has no verb “to be”." + ], + "examples": [ + { + "t": "אני {לומד} עברית.", + "r": "Ani lomed ivrit.", + "e": "I am learning Hebrew. (a man)" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "Semitic", + "roots", + "gender" + ] + }, + { + "id": "alephbet", + "topic": "script", + "title": "The alef-bet", + "body": [ + "Hebrew has 22 letters, all consonants, written right to left. There are no capitals. Five letters take a different shape at the end of a word: כ ך, מ ם, נ ן, פ ף, צ ץ.", + "A few letters also stand for vowels: ו for o or u, י for i or e. The letters ב, כ and פ have two sounds each (b/v, k/ch, p/f)." + ], + "table": { + "head": [ + "Letter", + "Name", + "Sound" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "א", + "alef", + "silent, or a glottal stop" + ], + [ + "ב", + "bet / vet", + "b or v" + ], + [ + "ג", + "gimel", + "g" + ], + [ + "ד", + "dalet", + "d" + ], + [ + "ה", + "he", + "h (often silent at the end)" + ], + [ + "ו", + "vav", + "v, or the vowel o / u" + ], + [ + "ז", + "zayin", + "z" + ], + [ + "ח", + "chet", + "ch as in Bach" + ], + [ + "ט", + "tet", + "t" + ], + [ + "י", + "yod", + "y, or the vowel i / e" + ], + [ + "כ ך", + "kaf / chaf", + "k or ch" + ], + [ + "ל", + "lamed", + "l" + ], + [ + "מ ם", + "mem", + "m" + ], + [ + "נ ן", + "nun", + "n" + ], + [ + "ס", + "samech", + "s" + ], + [ + "ע", + "ayin", + "silent, or a glottal stop" + ], + [ + "פ ף", + "pe / fe", + "p or f" + ], + [ + "צ ץ", + "tsadi", + "ts" + ], + [ + "ק", + "kuf", + "k" + ], + [ + "ר", + "resh", + "r (in the throat)" + ], + [ + "ש", + "shin / sin", + "sh or s" + ], + [ + "ת", + "tav", + "t" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "script", + "letters", + "final forms" + ] + }, + { + "id": "niqqud", + "topic": "script", + "title": "Vowel points", + "body": "Vowels can be shown with dots and dashes under, over or inside the letters (ניקוד, niqqud). Children's books, poetry, prayer books and dictionaries use them; newspapers, signs and everyday writing leave them out, and readers fill in the vowels from context.", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "שָׁלוֹם · שלום", + "r": "shalom", + "e": "the same word with and without vowel points" + }, + { + "t": "סֵפֶר · סַפָּר · סְפָר", + "r": "sefer · sapar · sfar", + "e": "book · barber · frontier: all written ספר without points" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "vowels", + "niqqud" + ] + }, + { + "id": "sounds", + "topic": "sounds", + "title": "Sounds to watch", + "body": "Modern Israeli Hebrew has five vowels: a, e, i, o, u. The stress usually falls on the last syllable. Two pairs of letters now sound the same for most speakers: ח and כ (ch), and א and ע (silent or a light catch). ר is said in the throat, like French r.", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "חם · כמה", + "r": "cham · kama", + "e": "hot · how much (ח and כ both ch / k)" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "pronunciation", + "stress" + ] + }, + { + "id": "pronouns", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "Personal pronouns", + "body": "“You” and “they” have separate masculine and feminine forms. A mixed group takes the masculine.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "", + "Singular", + "Plural" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "1st", + "אני ani", + "אנחנו anachnu" + ], + [ + "2nd masc.", + "אתה ata", + "אתם atem" + ], + [ + "2nd fem.", + "את at", + "אתן aten" + ], + [ + "3rd masc.", + "הוא hu", + "הם hem" + ], + [ + "3rd fem.", + "היא hi", + "הן hen" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "pronouns", + "gender" + ] + }, + { + "id": "present", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "The present tense", + "body": "The present tense has four forms, chosen by the gender and number of the subject, not by the person. Past and future, which come later, change for person too.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "", + "to write (כ־ת־ב)", + "to speak (ד־ב־ר)" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "masc. sing.", + "כותב kotev", + "מדבר medaber" + ], + [ + "fem. sing.", + "כותבת kotevet", + "מדברת medaberet" + ], + [ + "masc. plural", + "כותבים kotvim", + "מדברים medabrim" + ], + [ + "fem. plural", + "כותבות kotvot", + "מדברות medabrot" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "verbs", + "present", + "binyanim" + ] + }, + { + "id": "et", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "את before a definite object", + "body": "When the object of a verb is definite (it has ה־, or it is a name), Hebrew puts the little word את (et) in front of it. With an indefinite object there is no את. It has no English translation.", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "אני רואה {את} הים.", + "r": "Ani ro'e et ha-yam.", + "e": "I see the sea." + }, + { + "t": "אני רואה ים.", + "r": "Ani ro'e yam.", + "e": "I see a sea." + }, + { + "t": "אתה מכיר {את} דנה?", + "r": "Ata makir et Dana?", + "e": "Do you know Dana?" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "objects", + "et" + ] + }, + { + "id": "numbers", + "topic": "numbers", + "title": "Numbers", + "body": "Numbers have masculine and feminine forms. Counting aloud, telling the time and saying prices use the feminine forms shown here.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "", + "Hebrew", + "Transliteration" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "1", + "אחת", + "achat" + ], + [ + "2", + "שתיים", + "shtayim" + ], + [ + "3", + "שלוש", + "shalosh" + ], + [ + "4", + "ארבע", + "arba" + ], + [ + "5", + "חמש", + "chamesh" + ], + [ + "6", + "שש", + "shesh" + ], + [ + "7", + "שבע", + "sheva" + ], + [ + "8", + "שמונה", + "shmone" + ], + [ + "9", + "תשע", + "tesha" + ], + [ + "10", + "עשר", + "eser" + ], + [ + "20", + "עשרים", + "esrim" + ], + [ + "100", + "מאה", + "me'a" + ], + [ + "1000", + "אלף", + "elef" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "numbers", + "gender" + ] + }, + { + "id": "phrases", + "topic": "phrases", + "title": "Everyday phrases", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "שלום, מה נשמע?", + "r": "Shalom, ma nishma?", + "e": "Hi, how's it going?" + }, + { + "t": "תודה רבה.", + "r": "Toda raba.", + "e": "Thank you very much." + }, + { + "t": "סליחה, איפה התחנה?", + "r": "Slicha, eifo ha-tachana?", + "e": "Excuse me, where is the station?" + }, + { + "t": "כמה זה עולה?", + "r": "Kama ze ole?", + "e": "How much does this cost?" + }, + { + "t": "אני לא מבין / מבינה.", + "r": "Ani lo mevin / mevina.", + "e": "I don't understand. (man / woman)" + }, + { + "t": "אפשר את החשבון?", + "r": "Efshar et ha-cheshbon?", + "e": "Could I have the bill?" + }, + { + "t": "שבת שלום!", + "r": "Shabat shalom!", + "e": "Have a peaceful Sabbath! (Friday and Saturday)" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "phrases", + "travel" + ] + }, + { + "id": "week", + "topic": "culture", + "title": "The Israeli week", + "body": "The working week runs Sunday to Thursday, and Friday is a short day. Shabbat runs from sunset on Friday to nightfall on Saturday; many shops and most public transport stop. The days are numbered: יום ראשון “first day” is Sunday, יום שני Monday, and so on to יום שישי, Friday.", + "tags": [ + "culture", + "Shabbat", + "days" ] } ] @@ -6395,5 +8451,462 @@ window.LSD_REFERENCE = { ] } ] + }, + "thai": { + "id": "thai", + "entries": [ + { + "id": "at-a-glance", + "topic": "overview", + "title": "Thai at a glance", + "body": [ + "Thai is the national language of Thailand, a Tai–Kadai language closely related to Lao. It is tonal: each syllable has one of five tones, and the tone changes the meaning.", + "Words never change form. There are no endings for tense, plural or gender; word order and small helper words do that work. Polite speech ends with ครับ (men) or ค่ะ (women)." + ], + "examples": [ + { + "t": "ผม{กิน}ข้าว{แล้ว}ครับ", + "r": "Phom kin khao laeo khrap.", + "e": "I have already eaten. (a man)" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "Tai–Kadai", + "tonal", + "analytic" + ] + }, + { + "id": "script", + "topic": "script", + "title": "How Thai script works", + "body": [ + "Thai has 44 consonant letters and about 30 vowel forms. Vowels are written before, after, above or below the consonant they follow in speech: in เก (ke), the vowel เ is written first but said second.", + "Words are written without spaces between them; a space marks the end of a phrase or sentence. There are no capital letters." + ], + "examples": [ + { + "t": "ก + า = กา · ก + ิ = กิ · เ + ก = เก · ก + ุ = กุ", + "e": "the vowel can sit after, above, before or below" + }, + { + "t": "ผมชอบกินข้าวผัด", + "r": "phom chop kin khao phat", + "e": "I like to eat fried rice. (no spaces between words)" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "script", + "abugida", + "spacing" + ] + }, + { + "id": "tones", + "topic": "sounds", + "title": "The five tones", + "body": "Each syllable has one of five tones. The classic example is the syllable maa (or mai), which is a different word in each tone.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Tone", + "Shape", + "Example", + "Meaning" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "Mid", + "level, middle of the voice", + "มา ma", + "come" + ], + [ + "Low", + "level, low", + "ใหม่ mai", + "new" + ], + [ + "Falling", + "high, then falling", + "ไม่ mai", + "not" + ], + [ + "High", + "high, rising slightly", + "ม้า ma", + "horse" + ], + [ + "Rising", + "low, then rising", + "หมา ma", + "dog" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "tones", + "pronunciation" + ] + }, + { + "id": "classes", + "topic": "script", + "title": "Consonant classes and tone marks", + "body": [ + "Every consonant belongs to one of three classes: middle, high or low. The tone of a syllable comes from the class of its first consonant, whether the syllable ends in a stop (live or dead syllable), the vowel length, and any tone mark.", + "There are four tone marks: ่ (mai ek), ้ (mai tho), ๊ (mai tri) and ๋ (mai chattawa). The same mark gives different tones on different classes, so learn the class with each letter." + ], + "table": { + "head": [ + "Class", + "Some letters", + "Unmarked live syllable" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "Middle", + "ก จ ด ต บ ป อ", + "mid tone: กา ka" + ], + [ + "High", + "ข ฉ ถ ผ ฝ ส ห", + "rising tone: ขา kha" + ], + [ + "Low", + "ค ง ช น ม ร ล ว", + "mid tone: คา kha" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "tones", + "consonant classes" + ] + }, + { + "id": "pronouns", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "Pronouns and polite endings", + "body": "The word for “I” depends on who is speaking and to whom. Pronouns are often dropped when the meaning is clear, and people are often addressed by their name or a kin word like พี่ (older sibling) instead of “you”.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Word", + "Romanization", + "Use" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "ผม", + "phom", + "I (man, polite)" + ], + [ + "ฉัน / ดิฉัน", + "chan / dichan", + "I (woman; ดิฉัน is formal)" + ], + [ + "คุณ", + "khun", + "you (polite)" + ], + [ + "เขา", + "khao", + "he, she, they" + ], + [ + "เรา", + "rao", + "we" + ], + [ + "ครับ", + "khrap", + "polite ending, man" + ], + [ + "ค่ะ / คะ", + "kha", + "polite ending, woman (คะ in questions)" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "pronouns", + "politeness" + ] + }, + { + "id": "markers", + "topic": "verbs", + "title": "Time and aspect words", + "body": "Verbs never change. These words, placed around the verb, show when something happens.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Word", + "Place", + "Meaning", + "Example" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "จะ ja", + "before the verb", + "will", + "ฉันจะไป, I will go" + ], + [ + "กำลัง kamlang", + "before the verb", + "is doing now", + "เขากำลังกิน, he is eating" + ], + [ + "แล้ว laeo", + "after the verb phrase", + "already, done", + "กินแล้ว, I've eaten" + ], + [ + "เคย khoei", + "before the verb", + "have ever", + "เคยไป, have been" + ], + [ + "ยัง yang", + "before the verb", + "still; not yet (with ไม่)", + "ยังไม่ไป, haven't gone yet" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "verbs", + "tense", + "aspect" + ] + }, + { + "id": "classifiers", + "topic": "grammar", + "title": "Classifiers", + "body": "When counting, the order is noun, number, classifier. Each kind of thing has its own classifier.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "Classifier", + "Used for", + "Example" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "คน khon", + "people", + "เพื่อนสองคน, two friends" + ], + [ + "ตัว tua", + "animals, clothes, chairs", + "แมวสามตัว, three cats" + ], + [ + "เล่ม lem", + "books, knives", + "หนังสือหนึ่งเล่ม, one book" + ], + [ + "คัน khan", + "cars, umbrellas", + "รถสองคัน, two cars" + ], + [ + "อัน an", + "small things in general", + "อันนี้, this one" + ], + [ + "แก้ว kaeo", + "glasses, cups of a drink", + "กาแฟสองแก้ว, two coffees" + ], + [ + "ขวด khuat", + "bottles", + "น้ำสามขวด, three bottles of water" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "classifiers", + "counting" + ] + }, + { + "id": "numbers", + "topic": "numbers", + "title": "Numbers and Thai digits", + "body": "Thailand uses both Arabic digits and its own digits; prices and dates are usually in Arabic digits, but Thai digits appear on official documents and some price signs.", + "table": { + "head": [ + "", + "Thai digit", + "Word", + "Romanization" + ], + "rows": [ + [ + "0", + "๐", + "ศูนย์", + "sun" + ], + [ + "1", + "๑", + "หนึ่ง", + "nueng" + ], + [ + "2", + "๒", + "สอง", + "song" + ], + [ + "3", + "๓", + "สาม", + "sam" + ], + [ + "4", + "๔", + "สี่", + "si" + ], + [ + "5", + "๕", + "ห้า", + "ha" + ], + [ + "6", + "๖", + "หก", + "hok" + ], + [ + "7", + "๗", + "เจ็ด", + "chet" + ], + [ + "8", + "๘", + "แปด", + "paet" + ], + [ + "9", + "๙", + "เก้า", + "kao" + ], + [ + "10", + "๑๐", + "สิบ", + "sip" + ], + [ + "11", + "๑๑", + "สิบเอ็ด", + "sip et" + ], + [ + "20", + "๒๐", + "ยี่สิบ", + "yi sip" + ], + [ + "100", + "๑๐๐", + "ร้อย", + "roi" + ] + ] + }, + "tags": [ + "numbers", + "digits" + ] + }, + { + "id": "phrases", + "topic": "phrases", + "title": "Everyday phrases", + "examples": [ + { + "t": "สวัสดีครับ / ค่ะ", + "r": "Sawatdi khrap / kha.", + "e": "Hello. (man / woman)" + }, + { + "t": "ขอบคุณมากครับ", + "r": "Khop khun mak khrap.", + "e": "Thank you very much." + }, + { + "t": "ไม่เป็นไร", + "r": "Mai pen rai.", + "e": "Never mind. / No problem." + }, + { + "t": "อันนี้เท่าไร", + "r": "An ni thao rai?", + "e": "How much is this?" + }, + { + "t": "ไม่เผ็ดนะครับ", + "r": "Mai phet na khrap.", + "e": "Not spicy, please." + }, + { + "t": "ห้องน้ำอยู่ที่ไหนคะ", + "r": "Hong nam yu thi nai kha?", + "e": "Where is the toilet? (a woman)" + }, + { + "t": "พูดช้าๆ ได้ไหม", + "r": "Phut cha cha dai mai?", + "e": "Could you speak slowly?" + } + ], + "tags": [ + "phrases", + "travel" + ] + }, + { + "id": "wai", + "topic": "culture", + "title": "The wai", + "body": "The wai (ไหว้) is the Thai greeting: palms pressed together at the chest, with a slight bow. The younger or junior person wais first, and the higher the hands, the more respect. Monks are not expected to return a wai, and a shop worker's wai is usually answered with a smile or a nod.", + "tags": [ + "culture", + "greetings" + ] + } + ] } }; diff --git a/languages/registry.js b/languages/registry.js index 30250009..827218bf 100644 --- a/languages/registry.js +++ b/languages/registry.js @@ -41,7 +41,12 @@ window.LSD_LANGUAGE_REGISTRY = { "armenian" ], "notes": "Eastern Armenian in the Armenian alphabet.", - "speech": "hy-AM" + "speech": "hy-AM", + "data": { + "grammar": "grammar.js", + "vocab": "vocab.js", + "reference": "reference.json" + } }, "bengali": { "id": "bengali", @@ -139,7 +144,12 @@ window.LSD_LANGUAGE_REGISTRY = { "georgian" ], "notes": "Georgian in Mkhedruli, which has no capital letters.", - "speech": "ka-GE" + "speech": "ka-GE", + "data": { + "grammar": "grammar.js", + "vocab": "vocab.js", + "reference": "reference.json" + } }, "greek": { "id": "greek", @@ -152,7 +162,11 @@ window.LSD_LANGUAGE_REGISTRY = { "greek" ], "notes": "Modern Greek in the Greek alphabet, 24 letters with a stress mark.", - "speech": "el-GR" + "speech": "el-GR", + "data": { + "grammar": "grammar.js", + "reference": "reference.json" + } }, "gujarati": { "id": "gujarati", @@ -195,7 +209,12 @@ window.LSD_LANGUAGE_REGISTRY = { ], "notes": "Modern Hebrew, written right to left; vowel points are usually left out.", "speech": "he-IL", - "direction": "rtl" + "direction": "rtl", + "data": { + "grammar": "grammar.js", + "vocab": "vocab.js", + "reference": "reference.json" + } }, "hindi": { "id": "hindi", @@ -443,7 +462,12 @@ window.LSD_LANGUAGE_REGISTRY = { "thai" ], "notes": "Thai, with 44 consonants in three classes and five tones; words are written without spaces.", - "speech": "th-TH" + "speech": "th-TH", + "data": { + "grammar": "grammar.js", + "vocab": "vocab.js", + "reference": "reference.json" + } }, "tibetan": { "id": "tibetan", diff --git a/languages/thai/grammar.js b/languages/thai/grammar.js new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e40e2aeb --- /dev/null +++ b/languages/thai/grammar.js @@ -0,0 +1,198 @@ +// Thai first grammar for the Grammar Learner. Written for this project. +// Examples are [Thai, romanization, English]; {braces} mark the point of the lesson. +// Drills are { q, en, options, answer, why }; ＿ is the blank. +window.GRAMMAR = window.GRAMMAR || {}; +window.GRAMMAR.thai = { + title: "Thai first grammar", + intro: "Thai words never change their form: no endings for tense, person, plural or gender. Instead, word order and small helper words carry the meaning, and the speaker's own gender shows up in the polite word at the end of a sentence. These lessons cover pronouns and ครับ / ค่ะ, the three verbs for “to be” and “have”, word order and describing words, saying no and asking, time words, and counting with classifiers. The romanization is a simple one without tone marks; listen to each word with text to speech to hear the tone.", + lessons: [ + { + id: "polite", + title: "I, you, and ครับ / ค่ะ", + particle: "ครับ ค่ะ", + summary: "Which “I” to use, and the polite word that ends most sentences.", + sections: [ + { + p: "A man says ผม (phom) for “I”, and a woman usually says ฉัน (chan) or ดิฉัน (formal). “You” is คุณ (khun), and “he, she, they” is เขา (khao).", + examples: [ + ["{ผม}ชื่อสมชาย", "Phom chue Somchai.", "My name is Somchai. (a man)"], + ["{ฉัน}มาจากอังกฤษ", "Chan ma chak Angkrit.", "I come from England. (a woman)"], + ["{คุณ}ชื่ออะไร", "Khun chue arai?", "What is your name?"], + ], + }, + { + h: "Polite endings", + p: "End a sentence with ครับ (khrap) if you are a man and ค่ะ (kha) if you are a woman; in a question a woman says คะ (kha, with a rising tone). They make speech polite, and on their own they mean “yes”.", + examples: [ + ["สวัสดี{ครับ}", "Sawatdi khrap.", "Hello. (a man)"], + ["ขอบคุณ{ค่ะ}", "Khop khun kha.", "Thank you. (a woman)"], + ["คุณชื่ออะไร{คะ}", "Khun chue arai kha?", "What's your name? (a woman asking)"], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "＿ชื่อเดวิดครับ", en: "My name is David. (a man)", options: ["ผม", "ฉัน", "คุณ", "เขา"], answer: "ผม", why: "A man says ผม for “I”, and ends with ครับ." }, + { q: "ขอบคุณ＿", en: "Thank you. (a woman)", options: ["ค่ะ", "ครับ", "คะ", "ไหม"], answer: "ค่ะ", why: "A woman ends a statement with ค่ะ." }, + { q: "＿เป็นครู", en: "She is a teacher.", options: ["เขา", "คุณ", "ผม", "ฉัน"], answer: "เขา", why: "เขา = he, she or they." }, + { q: "สบายดีไหม＿", en: "How are you? (a woman asking)", options: ["คะ", "ค่ะ", "ครับ", "ผม"], answer: "คะ", why: "In a question, a woman uses คะ." }, + { q: "Which word means “you”?", en: "", options: ["คุณ", "เขา", "ผม", "ครับ"], answer: "คุณ", why: "คุณ is the everyday polite “you”." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "pen-yuu-mii", + title: "เป็น, อยู่ and มี", + particle: "เป็น อยู่ มี", + summary: "Three verbs for “is”, “is at” and “has”, and adjectives that need no verb.", + sections: [ + { + p: "เป็น (pen) is “to be” for what someone is: a job, a nationality. อยู่ (yu) is “to be” for where something is. มี (mi) is “to have” and “there is”.", + examples: [ + ["ผม{เป็น}นักเรียน", "Phom pen nakrian.", "I am a student."], + ["เขา{อยู่}ที่บ้าน", "Khao yu thi ban.", "He is at home."], + ["ฉัน{มี}แมวสองตัว", "Chan mi maeo song tua.", "I have two cats."], + ], + }, + { + h: "Adjectives are verbs", + p: "With a describing word, no “is” is needed: อาหารอร่อย “the food (is) delicious”. Using เป็น there would be wrong.", + examples: [ + ["อาหาร{อร่อย}", "Ahan aroi.", "The food is delicious."], + ["วันนี้{ร้อน}", "Wan ni ron.", "It's hot today."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "เขา＿หมอ", en: "He is a doctor.", options: ["เป็น", "อยู่", "มี", "—"], answer: "เป็น", why: "Saying what someone is: เป็น." }, + { q: "ห้องน้ำ＿ที่ไหน", en: "Where is the toilet?", options: ["อยู่", "เป็น", "มี", "ไป"], answer: "อยู่", why: "Saying where something is: อยู่." }, + { q: "คุณ＿พี่น้องไหม", en: "Do you have brothers and sisters?", options: ["มี", "เป็น", "อยู่", "ไม่"], answer: "มี", why: "มี = to have." }, + { q: "Which sentence means “The room is big”?", en: "ห้อง = room, ใหญ่ = big", options: ["ห้องใหญ่", "ห้องเป็นใหญ่", "ห้องอยู่ใหญ่", "ห้องมีใหญ่"], answer: "ห้องใหญ่", why: "A describing word needs no verb in front of it." }, + { q: "ผม＿ที่กรุงเทพฯ", en: "I live (am) in Bangkok.", options: ["อยู่", "เป็น", "มี", "จะ"], answer: "อยู่", why: "อยู่ is “to be at” and also “to live (somewhere)”." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "word-order", + title: "Word order and describing words", + particle: "SVO", + summary: "Subject, verb, object, like English; but the describing word comes after the noun.", + sections: [ + { + p: "A Thai sentence runs subject – verb – object, as in English, and the verb never changes. A describing word comes after its noun: บ้านใหญ่ “big house”, รถสีแดง “red car”.", + examples: [ + ["ฉันกินข้าว", "Chan kin khao.", "I eat rice. / I'm eating."], + ["บ้าน{ใหญ่}", "ban yai", "a big house"], + ["รถ{สีแดง}", "rot si daeng", "a red car"], + ], + }, + { + h: "This, that, and whose", + p: "นี้ (this) and นั้น (that) also follow the noun: หนังสือเล่มนี้, “this book”. ของ means “of / belonging to”: บ้านของผม, “my house”; in speech ของ is often dropped.", + examples: [ + ["ร้าน{นี้}", "ran ni", "this shop"], + ["เพื่อน{ของ}ฉัน", "phuean khong chan", "my friend"], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "Which means “a small dog”?", en: "หมา = dog, เล็ก = small", options: ["หมาเล็ก", "เล็กหมา", "หมาเป็นเล็ก", "เล็กของหมา"], answer: "หมาเล็ก", why: "The describing word comes after the noun." }, + { q: "Which means “I drink coffee”?", en: "ดื่ม = drink, กาแฟ = coffee", options: ["ฉันดื่มกาแฟ", "ฉันกาแฟดื่ม", "ดื่มฉันกาแฟ", "กาแฟฉันดื่ม"], answer: "ฉันดื่มกาแฟ", why: "Subject – verb – object, as in English." }, + { q: "ร้านอาหาร＿อร่อย", en: "This restaurant is tasty.", options: ["นี้", "ของ", "เป็น", "มี"], answer: "นี้", why: "นี้ (this) follows the noun." }, + { q: "แม่＿ผม", en: "my mother", options: ["ของ", "นี้", "อยู่", "เป็น"], answer: "ของ", why: "ของ = of, belonging to." }, + { q: "How does “eat” change for “she ate”?", en: "กิน = eat", options: ["It doesn't change.", "It takes a past ending.", "It changes its tone.", "It doubles: กินกิน"], answer: "It doesn't change.", why: "Thai verbs never change form; time words show when." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "mai-questions", + title: "ไม่, and asking questions", + particle: "ไม่ ไหม", + summary: "ไม่ before the verb is “not”; ไหม at the end makes a yes/no question.", + sections: [ + { + p: "Put ไม่ (mai) before the verb or describing word to make it negative. To answer “no” you repeat the verb with ไม่: ไม่ชอบ “(I) don't like (it)”.", + examples: [ + ["ผม{ไม่}เข้าใจ", "Phom mai khao chai.", "I don't understand."], + ["{ไม่}เผ็ด", "Mai phet.", "Not spicy."], + ["{ไม่}เป็นไร", "Mai pen rai.", "Never mind. / It's fine."], + ], + }, + { + h: "Questions", + p: "Add ไหม (mai, rising tone) to the end for a yes/no question. Question words stay where the answer would go, usually at the end: อะไร what, ที่ไหน where, ใคร who, เมื่อไร when, ทำไม why, เท่าไร how much.", + examples: [ + ["คุณพูดภาษาอังกฤษได้{ไหม}", "Khun phut phasa Angkrit dai mai?", "Can you speak English?"], + ["อันนี้{เท่าไร}", "An ni thao rai?", "How much is this?"], + ["ห้องน้ำอยู่{ที่ไหน}", "Hong nam yu thi nai?", "Where is the toilet?"], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "ผม＿ชอบเผ็ด", en: "I don't like spicy food.", options: ["ไม่", "ไหม", "อะไร", "ครับ"], answer: "ไม่", why: "ไม่ before the verb = not." }, + { q: "อร่อย＿", en: "Is it tasty?", options: ["ไหม", "ไม่", "ที่ไหน", "ใคร"], answer: "ไหม", why: "ไหม at the end makes a yes/no question." }, + { q: "นี่คือ＿", en: "What is this?", options: ["อะไร", "ใคร", "ที่ไหน", "เท่าไร"], answer: "อะไร", why: "อะไร = what." }, + { q: "คุณไป＿", en: "Where are you going?", options: ["ที่ไหน", "อะไร", "เมื่อไร", "ไหม"], answer: "ที่ไหน", why: "ที่ไหน = where." }, + { q: "เขาเป็น＿", en: "Who is he?", options: ["ใคร", "ทำไม", "เท่าไร", "ไม่"], answer: "ใคร", why: "ใคร = who, in the place of the answer." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "time", + title: "Past, present and future", + particle: "จะ แล้ว", + summary: "Small words before or after the verb show when: จะ, กำลัง, แล้ว, เคย.", + sections: [ + { + p: "The verb stays the same; a helper word shows the time. จะ (ja) before the verb: will. กำลัง (kamlang) before the verb: in the middle of doing. แล้ว (laeo) at the end: already, done.", + examples: [ + ["พรุ่งนี้ผม{จะ}ไปเชียงใหม่", "Phrung ni phom ja pai Chiang Mai.", "Tomorrow I will go to Chiang Mai."], + ["เขา{กำลัง}ทำงาน", "Khao kamlang tham ngan.", "He is working right now."], + ["ฉันกินข้าว{แล้ว}", "Chan kin khao laeo.", "I have already eaten."], + ], + }, + { + h: "Ever, and time words", + p: "เคย (khoei) before a verb means “have ever”. Often a time word alone is enough: เมื่อวาน (yesterday), วันนี้ (today), พรุ่งนี้ (tomorrow).", + examples: [ + ["คุณ{เคย}ไปญี่ปุ่นไหม", "Khun khoei pai Yipun mai?", "Have you ever been to Japan?"], + ["{เมื่อวาน}ฝนตก", "Muea wan fon tok.", "It rained yesterday."], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "ผม＿ไปตลาดพรุ่งนี้", en: "I will go to the market tomorrow.", options: ["จะ", "แล้ว", "เคย", "กำลัง"], answer: "จะ", why: "จะ before the verb = will." }, + { q: "เขา＿อาบน้ำ", en: "She is (in the middle of) taking a shower.", options: ["กำลัง", "จะ", "แล้ว", "เคย"], answer: "กำลัง", why: "กำลัง = right now, in progress." }, + { q: "ฉันทำการบ้าน＿", en: "I have already done my homework.", options: ["แล้ว", "จะ", "กำลัง", "ไหม"], answer: "แล้ว", why: "แล้ว at the end = already, done." }, + { q: "คุณ＿กินทุเรียนไหม", en: "Have you ever eaten durian?", options: ["เคย", "จะ", "แล้ว", "กำลัง"], answer: "เคย", why: "เคย = have ever." }, + { q: "＿ผมไปทะเล", en: "Yesterday I went to the sea.", options: ["เมื่อวาน", "พรุ่งนี้", "จะ", "กำลัง"], answer: "เมื่อวาน", why: "A time word is enough to show the past." }, + ], + }, + { + id: "classifiers", + title: "Counting with classifiers", + particle: "ตัว คน เล่ม", + summary: "Noun, number, then a counting word that depends on the kind of thing.", + sections: [ + { + p: "To count, say the noun, the number, and a classifier: แมว สอง ตัว “two cats” (cat two body). Each kind of thing has its own: คน for people, ตัว for animals and clothes, เล่ม for books, อัน for small things in general.", + examples: [ + ["นักเรียนห้า{คน}", "nakrian ha khon", "five students"], + ["แมวสอง{ตัว}", "maeo song tua", "two cats"], + ["หนังสือสาม{เล่ม}", "nangsue sam lem", "three books"], + ], + }, + { + h: "Containers and “this one”", + p: "Drinks are counted by their container: กาแฟสองแก้ว (two glasses / cups of coffee), น้ำหนึ่งขวด (a bottle of water). The classifier also goes with นี้: แมวตัวนี้, “this cat”.", + examples: [ + ["กาแฟสอง{แก้ว}", "kafae song kaeo", "two coffees"], + ["น้ำหนึ่ง{ขวด}", "nam nueng khuat", "a bottle of water"], + ], + }, + ], + drills: [ + { q: "ผมมีน้องสาวสอง＿", en: "I have two younger sisters.", options: ["คน", "ตัว", "เล่ม", "แก้ว"], answer: "คน", why: "People are counted with คน." }, + { q: "หมาสาม＿", en: "three dogs", options: ["ตัว", "คน", "เล่ม", "ขวด"], answer: "ตัว", why: "Animals are counted with ตัว." }, + { q: "ขอเบียร์สอง＿", en: "Two bottles of beer, please.", options: ["ขวด", "ตัว", "คน", "เล่ม"], answer: "ขวด", why: "ขวด = bottle." }, + { q: "Which means “four books”?", en: "หนังสือ = book, สี่ = four", options: ["หนังสือสี่เล่ม", "สี่หนังสือ", "สี่เล่มหนังสือ", "หนังสือเล่มสี่"], answer: "หนังสือสี่เล่ม", why: "Noun, number, classifier." }, + { q: "เสื้อ＿นี้สวย", en: "This shirt is pretty.", options: ["ตัว", "คน", "เล่ม", "แก้ว"], answer: "ตัว", why: "Clothes use ตัว, which also goes before นี้." }, + ], + }, + ], +}; diff --git a/languages/thai/meta.json b/languages/thai/meta.json index cc9e15dd..0a707eaa 100644 --- a/languages/thai/meta.json +++ b/languages/thai/meta.json @@ -5,5 +5,6 @@ "writingSystems": ["thai"], "characterKeys": ["thai"], "notes": "Thai, with 44 consonants in three classes and five tones; words are written without spaces.", - "speech": "th-TH" + "speech": "th-TH", + "data": { "grammar": "grammar.js", "vocab": "vocab.js", "reference": "reference.json" } } diff --git a/languages/thai/reference.json b/languages/thai/reference.json new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ba61772f --- /dev/null +++ b/languages/thai/reference.json @@ -0,0 +1,141 @@ +{ + "id": "thai", + "entries": [ + { + "id": "at-a-glance", "topic": "overview", "title": "Thai at a glance", + "body": [ + "Thai is the national language of Thailand, a Tai–Kadai language closely related to Lao. It is tonal: each syllable has one of five tones, and the tone changes the meaning.", + "Words never change form. There are no endings for tense, plural or gender; word order and small helper words do that work. Polite speech ends with ครับ (men) or ค่ะ (women)." + ], + "examples": [ + { "t": "ผม{กิน}ข้าว{แล้ว}ครับ", "r": "Phom kin khao laeo khrap.", "e": "I have already eaten. (a man)" } + ], + "tags": ["Tai–Kadai", "tonal", "analytic"] + }, + { + "id": "script", "topic": "script", "title": "How Thai script works", + "body": [ + "Thai has 44 consonant letters and about 30 vowel forms. Vowels are written before, after, above or below the consonant they follow in speech: in เก (ke), the vowel เ is written first but said second.", + "Words are written without spaces between them; a space marks the end of a phrase or sentence. There are no capital letters." + ], + "examples": [ + { "t": "ก + า = กา · ก + ิ = กิ · เ + ก = เก · ก + ุ = กุ", "e": "the vowel can sit after, above, before or below" }, + { "t": "ผมชอบกินข้าวผัด", "r": "phom chop kin khao phat", "e": "I like to eat fried rice. (no spaces between words)" } + ], + "tags": ["script", "abugida", "spacing"] + }, + { + "id": "tones", "topic": "sounds", "title": "The five tones", + "body": "Each syllable has one of five tones. The classic example is the syllable maa (or mai), which is a different word in each tone.", + "table": { + "head": ["Tone", "Shape", "Example", "Meaning"], + "rows": [ + ["Mid", "level, middle of the voice", "มา ma", "come"], + ["Low", "level, low", "ใหม่ mai", "new"], + ["Falling", "high, then falling", "ไม่ mai", "not"], + ["High", "high, rising slightly", "ม้า ma", "horse"], + ["Rising", "low, then rising", "หมา ma", "dog"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["tones", "pronunciation"] + }, + { + "id": "classes", "topic": "script", "title": "Consonant classes and tone marks", + "body": [ + "Every consonant belongs to one of three classes: middle, high or low. The tone of a syllable comes from the class of its first consonant, whether the syllable ends in a stop (live or dead syllable), the vowel length, and any tone mark.", + "There are four tone marks: ่ (mai ek), ้ (mai tho), ๊ (mai tri) and ๋ (mai chattawa). The same mark gives different tones on different classes, so learn the class with each letter." + ], + "table": { + "head": ["Class", "Some letters", "Unmarked live syllable"], + "rows": [ + ["Middle", "ก จ ด ต บ ป อ", "mid tone: กา ka"], + ["High", "ข ฉ ถ ผ ฝ ส ห", "rising tone: ขา kha"], + ["Low", "ค ง ช น ม ร ล ว", "mid tone: คา kha"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["tones", "consonant classes"] + }, + { + "id": "pronouns", "topic": "grammar", "title": "Pronouns and polite endings", + "body": "The word for “I” depends on who is speaking and to whom. Pronouns are often dropped when the meaning is clear, and people are often addressed by their name or a kin word like พี่ (older sibling) instead of “you”.", + "table": { + "head": ["Word", "Romanization", "Use"], + "rows": [ + ["ผม", "phom", "I (man, polite)"], + ["ฉัน / ดิฉัน", "chan / dichan", "I (woman; ดิฉัน is formal)"], + ["คุณ", "khun", "you (polite)"], + ["เขา", "khao", "he, she, they"], + ["เรา", "rao", "we"], + ["ครับ", "khrap", "polite ending, man"], + ["ค่ะ / คะ", "kha", "polite ending, woman (คะ in questions)"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["pronouns", "politeness"] + }, + { + "id": "markers", "topic": "verbs", "title": "Time and aspect words", + "body": "Verbs never change. These words, placed around the verb, show when something happens.", + "table": { + "head": ["Word", "Place", "Meaning", "Example"], + "rows": [ + ["จะ ja", "before the verb", "will", "ฉันจะไป, I will go"], + ["กำลัง kamlang", "before the verb", "is doing now", "เขากำลังกิน, he is eating"], + ["แล้ว laeo", "after the verb phrase", "already, done", "กินแล้ว, I've eaten"], + ["เคย khoei", "before the verb", "have ever", "เคยไป, have been"], + ["ยัง yang", "before the verb", "still; not yet (with ไม่)", "ยังไม่ไป, haven't gone yet"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["verbs", "tense", "aspect"] + }, + { + "id": "classifiers", "topic": "grammar", "title": "Classifiers", + "body": "When counting, the order is noun, number, classifier. Each kind of thing has its own classifier.", + "table": { + "head": ["Classifier", "Used for", "Example"], + "rows": [ + ["คน khon", "people", "เพื่อนสองคน, two friends"], + ["ตัว tua", "animals, clothes, chairs", "แมวสามตัว, three cats"], + ["เล่ม lem", "books, knives", "หนังสือหนึ่งเล่ม, one book"], + ["คัน khan", "cars, umbrellas", "รถสองคัน, two cars"], + ["อัน an", "small things in general", "อันนี้, this one"], + ["แก้ว kaeo", "glasses, cups of a drink", "กาแฟสองแก้ว, two coffees"], + ["ขวด khuat", "bottles", "น้ำสามขวด, three bottles of water"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["classifiers", "counting"] + }, + { + "id": "numbers", "topic": "numbers", "title": "Numbers and Thai digits", + "body": "Thailand uses both Arabic digits and its own digits; prices and dates are usually in Arabic digits, but Thai digits appear on official documents and some price signs.", + "table": { + "head": ["", "Thai digit", "Word", "Romanization"], + "rows": [ + ["0", "๐", "ศูนย์", "sun"], ["1", "๑", "หนึ่ง", "nueng"], ["2", "๒", "สอง", "song"], + ["3", "๓", "สาม", "sam"], ["4", "๔", "สี่", "si"], ["5", "๕", "ห้า", "ha"], + ["6", "๖", "หก", "hok"], ["7", "๗", "เจ็ด", "chet"], ["8", "๘", "แปด", "paet"], + ["9", "๙", "เก้า", "kao"], ["10", "๑๐", "สิบ", "sip"], ["11", "๑๑", "สิบเอ็ด", "sip et"], + ["20", "๒๐", "ยี่สิบ", "yi sip"], ["100", "๑๐๐", "ร้อย", "roi"] + ] + }, + "tags": ["numbers", "digits"] + }, + { + "id": "phrases", "topic": "phrases", "title": "Everyday phrases", + "examples": [ + { "t": "สวัสดีครับ / ค่ะ", "r": "Sawatdi khrap / kha.", "e": "Hello. (man / woman)" }, + { "t": "ขอบคุณมากครับ", "r": "Khop khun mak khrap.", "e": "Thank you very much." }, + { "t": "ไม่เป็นไร", "r": "Mai pen rai.", "e": "Never mind. / No problem." }, + { "t": "อันนี้เท่าไร", "r": "An ni thao rai?", "e": "How much is this?" }, + { "t": "ไม่เผ็ดนะครับ", "r": "Mai phet na khrap.", "e": "Not spicy, please." }, + { "t": "ห้องน้ำอยู่ที่ไหนคะ", "r": "Hong nam yu thi nai kha?", "e": "Where is the toilet? (a woman)" }, + { "t": "พูดช้าๆ ได้ไหม", "r": "Phut cha cha dai mai?", "e": "Could you speak slowly?" } + ], + "tags": ["phrases", "travel"] + }, + { + "id": "wai", "topic": "culture", "title": "The wai", + "body": "The wai (ไหว้) is the Thai greeting: palms pressed together at the chest, with a slight bow. The younger or junior person wais first, and the higher the hands, the more respect. Monks are not expected to return a wai, and a shop worker's wai is usually answered with a smile or a nod.", + "tags": ["culture", "greetings"] + } + ] +} diff --git a/languages/thai/vocab.js b/languages/thai/vocab.js new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ffc5c05b --- /dev/null +++ b/languages/thai/vocab.js @@ -0,0 +1,205 @@ +// Thai starter words for the Vocabulary Learner. +// Each word is [Thai, romanization, English, note]. Written for this project. +// The romanization has no tone marks; use text to speech to hear each tone. +window.LSD_DECKS = window.LSD_DECKS || {}; +window.LSD_DECKS.thai = [ + { + id: "greetings", + title: "Greetings", + words: [ + ["สวัสดี", "sawatdi", "hello; goodbye", "Add ครับ (man) or ค่ะ (woman)."], + ["ขอบคุณ", "khop khun", "thank you", "ขอบคุณมาก: thank you very much."], + ["ขอโทษ", "kho thot", "sorry; excuse me", ""], + ["ไม่เป็นไร", "mai pen rai", "never mind; you're welcome", "One of the most used Thai phrases."], + ["ใช่", "chai", "yes; that's right", ""], + ["ไม่ใช่", "mai chai", "no; that's not right", ""], + ["สบายดีไหม", "sabai di mai?", "how are you?", ""], + ["สบายดี", "sabai di", "I'm fine", ""], + ["ยินดีที่ได้รู้จัก", "yin di thi dai ru chak", "pleased to meet you", ""], + ["ผมชื่อ… / ฉันชื่อ…", "phom chue… / chan chue…", "my name is…", "ผม for a man, ฉัน for a woman."], + ["ลาก่อน", "la kon", "goodbye (for a long time)", "Everyday goodbye is สวัสดี or ไปก่อนนะ."], + ["โชคดี", "chok di", "good luck", ""], + ["ครับ", "khrap", "polite ending (man)", ""], + ["ค่ะ", "kha", "polite ending (woman)", "คะ in questions."], + ], + }, + { + id: "people", + title: "People", + words: [ + ["ผม", "phom", "I (man)", ""], + ["ฉัน", "chan", "I (woman, or casual)", ""], + ["คุณ", "khun", "you", ""], + ["เขา", "khao", "he; she; they", ""], + ["เรา", "rao", "we", ""], + ["ผู้ชาย", "phu chai", "man", ""], + ["ผู้หญิง", "phu ying", "woman", ""], + ["เด็ก", "dek", "child", ""], + ["เพื่อน", "phuean", "friend", ""], + ["แม่", "mae", "mother", ""], + ["พ่อ", "pho", "father", ""], + ["พี่", "phi", "older brother or sister", "Also used to address someone a little older."], + ["น้อง", "nong", "younger brother or sister", "Also used for waiters and anyone younger."], + ["ครอบครัว", "khropkhrua", "family", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "numbers", + title: "Numbers", + words: [ + ["ศูนย์", "sun", "zero", "Thai digit ๐."], + ["หนึ่ง", "nueng", "one", "๑"], + ["สอง", "song", "two", "๒"], + ["สาม", "sam", "three", "๓"], + ["สี่", "si", "four", "๔"], + ["ห้า", "ha", "five", "๕. Typed 555 means laughing."], + ["หก", "hok", "six", "๖"], + ["เจ็ด", "chet", "seven", "๗"], + ["แปด", "paet", "eight", "๘"], + ["เก้า", "kao", "nine", "๙"], + ["สิบ", "sip", "ten", "๑๐"], + ["ยี่สิบ", "yi sip", "twenty", "Not สองสิบ."], + ["ร้อย", "roi", "a hundred", ""], + ["พัน", "phan", "a thousand", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "food", + title: "Food and drink", + words: [ + ["น้ำ", "nam", "water", ""], + ["กาแฟ", "kafae", "coffee", ""], + ["ชา", "cha", "tea", ""], + ["ข้าว", "khao", "rice; food", "กินข้าว, “eat rice”, means to have a meal."], + ["ข้าวผัด", "khao phat", "fried rice", ""], + ["ก๋วยเตี๋ยว", "kuai tiao", "noodle soup", ""], + ["ไก่", "kai", "chicken", ""], + ["หมู", "mu", "pork", ""], + ["ปลา", "pla", "fish", ""], + ["ไข่", "khai", "egg", ""], + ["ผลไม้", "phonlamai", "fruit", ""], + ["ผัก", "phak", "vegetables", ""], + ["เผ็ด", "phet", "spicy", "ไม่เผ็ด: not spicy."], + ["อร่อย", "aroi", "delicious", ""], + ["เช็คบิล", "chek bin", "the bill, please", "From English “check bill”."], + ], + }, + { + id: "verbs", + title: "Everyday verbs", + words: [ + ["กิน", "kin", "to eat", "Verbs never change form."], + ["ดื่ม", "duem", "to drink", ""], + ["ไป", "pai", "to go", ""], + ["มา", "ma", "to come", ""], + ["อยู่", "yu", "to be at; to live", ""], + ["พูด", "phut", "to speak", ""], + ["อยาก", "yak", "to want (to do)", "อยากไป: want to go."], + ["ชอบ", "chop", "to like", ""], + ["รัก", "rak", "to love", ""], + ["ทำงาน", "tham ngan", "to work", ""], + ["เรียน", "rian", "to study; to learn", ""], + ["อ่าน", "an", "to read", ""], + ["เขียน", "khian", "to write", ""], + ["ดู", "du", "to look; to watch", ""], + ["รู้", "ru", "to know", "ไม่รู้: I don't know."], + ["เข้าใจ", "khao chai", "to understand", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "describing", + title: "Describing words", + words: [ + ["ใหญ่", "yai", "big", ""], + ["เล็ก", "lek", "small", ""], + ["ดี", "di", "good", ""], + ["ไม่ดี", "mai di", "bad", ""], + ["สวย", "suai", "beautiful", ""], + ["ใหม่", "mai", "new", "Tone sets it apart from ไม่, “not”."], + ["เก่า", "kao", "old (thing)", "For people: แก่, kae."], + ["ร้อน", "ron", "hot", ""], + ["หนาว", "nao", "cold (weather)", "Cold drinks: เย็น, yen."], + ["ถูก", "thuk", "cheap; correct", ""], + ["แพง", "phaeng", "expensive", ""], + ["ง่าย", "ngai", "easy", ""], + ["ยาก", "yak", "difficult", ""], + ["สนุก", "sanuk", "fun", ""], + ["เหนื่อย", "nueai", "tired", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "places", + title: "Places", + words: [ + ["บ้าน", "ban", "house; home", ""], + ["เมือง", "mueang", "town; city", ""], + ["ถนน", "thanon", "road", ""], + ["ร้าน", "ran", "shop", "ร้านอาหาร: restaurant."], + ["ตลาด", "talat", "market", ""], + ["โรงเรียน", "rong rian", "school", ""], + ["โรงพยาบาล", "rong phayaban", "hospital", ""], + ["ร้านขายยา", "ran khai ya", "pharmacy", ""], + ["สถานี", "sathani", "station", ""], + ["ทะเล", "thale", "sea", ""], + ["วัด", "wat", "temple", ""], + ["ห้องน้ำ", "hong nam", "toilet; bathroom", ""], + ["โรงแรม", "rong raem", "hotel", ""], + ["สนามบิน", "sanam bin", "airport", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "questions", + title: "Questions", + words: [ + ["อะไร", "arai", "what", "Goes where the answer would be."], + ["ใคร", "khrai", "who", ""], + ["ที่ไหน", "thi nai", "where", ""], + ["เมื่อไร", "muea rai", "when", ""], + ["ทำไม", "thammai", "why", ""], + ["อย่างไร", "yang rai", "how", "In speech ยังไง, yang ngai."], + ["เท่าไร", "thao rai", "how much", ""], + ["กี่", "ki", "how many", "Used with a classifier: กี่คน, how many people."], + ["ไหน", "nai", "which", ""], + ["ไหม", "mai", "yes/no question word", "At the end of the sentence."], + ["มี…ไหม", "mi … mai?", "do you have…?", ""], + ["ได้ไหม", "dai mai?", "can I? is it OK?", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "time", + title: "Time and days", + words: [ + ["วันนี้", "wan ni", "today", ""], + ["พรุ่งนี้", "phrung ni", "tomorrow", ""], + ["เมื่อวาน", "muea wan", "yesterday", ""], + ["ตอนนี้", "ton ni", "now", ""], + ["ทีหลัง", "thi lang", "later", ""], + ["ชั่วโมง", "chua mong", "hour", ""], + ["วัน", "wan", "day", ""], + ["อาทิตย์", "athit", "week; sun", ""], + ["เดือน", "duean", "month; moon", ""], + ["ปี", "pi", "year", ""], + ["วันจันทร์", "wan chan", "Monday", "Each day has its own colour; Monday's is yellow."], + ["วันอาทิตย์", "wan athit", "Sunday", ""], + ], + }, + { + id: "travel", + title: "Getting around", + words: [ + ["รถเมล์", "rot me", "bus", ""], + ["รถไฟ", "rot fai", "train", "Literally “fire vehicle”."], + ["แท็กซี่", "thaeksi", "taxi", ""], + ["รถตุ๊กตุ๊ก", "rot tuk tuk", "tuk-tuk", ""], + ["รถ", "rot", "car; vehicle", ""], + ["ตั๋ว", "tua", "ticket", ""], + ["หนังสือเดินทาง", "nangsue doen thang", "passport", ""], + ["ขวา", "khwa", "right", "เลี้ยวขวา: turn right."], + ["ซ้าย", "sai", "left", ""], + ["ตรงไป", "trong pai", "straight on", ""], + ["ใกล้", "klai", "near", "Tone sets it apart from ไกล, far."], + ["ไกล", "klai", "far", ""], + ["ช่วยด้วย", "chuai duai!", "help!", ""], + ], + }, +];